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Platonisme

Plato

Πλάτων

v. 428 av. J.-C. – v. 348 av. J.-C.Personne historiquement documentée

Philosophe athénien du IVe siècle av. J.-C., disciple de Socrate et maître d'Aristote, fondateur de l'Académie. Son œuvre, conservée intégralement, se compose de dialogues où Socrate tient le plus souvent la parole : il y expose la théorie des Formes, l'immortalité de l'âme, l'ascension par l'amour vers le beau et l'idée d'une cité gouvernée par ceux qui connaissent le Bien. Presque toute la philosophie occidentale, et une bonne part de la mystique chrétienne, juive et islamique, s'est pensée en dialogue avec lui.

œuvres
57œuvres
éditions
358éditions
citations
19citations
vidéos
15vidéos
images
11images
Busto de Platón (Museos Capitolinos, MC 1377)

Busto de Platón (Museos Capitolinos, MC 1377) · CC BY 2.5

Dans ses propres mots

«He knows nothing, and thinks that he knows; I neither know nor think that I know.»

Apología de Sócrates 21d (habla Sócrates). Español: traducción literal propia desde el griego (ed. Burnet). Inglés: Jowett, 1892 (dominio público).

Son idée centrale

Theory of Forms (Ideas): Plato holds that, besides sensible things, which are many and changing, there exist intelligible realities, eternal and unchanging — the Forms or Ideas (eidos, idea) — such as the Beautiful itself, the Just itself or the Equal itself.

Biographie

6 min de lecture

Traduction assistée à partir de l'original espagnol, en attente de relecture par un traducteur natif.

Un aristocrate dans l'Athènes en guerre

Platon naquit à Athènes vers 428 ou 427 av. J.-C., dans les premières années de la guerre du Péloponnèse, au sein de l'une des plus anciennes familles de la cité. Son père, Ariston, se disait descendant du roi Codros ; sa mère, Périctioné, était apparentée à Solon. Il eut deux frères aînés, Adimante et Glaucon, auxquels il donnerait la parole dans la République, et une sœur, Potoné, mère de son successeur Speusippe. Ariston mort, Périctioné épousa son oncle Pyrilampe, ami de Périclès. L'enfant grandit donc parmi des gens habitués à commander : Critias, cousin de sa mère, et Charmide, son oncle, allaient être des figures centrales du régime oligarchique des Trente.

De sa formation, on sait peu de chose avec certitude. Diogène Laërce, qui écrit six siècles plus tard, rapporte que son vrai nom était Aristoclès et que « Platon » était un surnom dû à la largeur de ses épaules ou de son front ; qu'il pratiqua la lutte, la peinture et la poésie ; et qu'il brûla ses tragédies après avoir entendu Socrate. Ce sont là des informations de biographes hellénistiques qui mêlaient tradition, déductions tirées des dialogues et pure invention, et la critique moderne les accueille avec prudence.

La blessure de 399

Ce qui paraît assuré, c'est que Platon fit partie, dans sa jeunesse, du cercle de Socrate, et que cette relation décida de sa vie. La Lettre VII, dont l'authenticité est discutée mais que beaucoup de spécialistes acceptent, raconte que, jeune homme, il pensait se consacrer à la politique, que les Trente l'invitèrent à se joindre à eux et que leur violence — y compris la tentative d'impliquer Socrate dans l'arrestation d'un citoyen destiné à être exécuté — l'éloigna d'eux. La démocratie restaurée, en 399 av. J.-C., les nouveaux dirigeants traduisirent Socrate en justice pour impiété et corruption de la jeunesse, et il fut condamné à boire la ciguë.

Platon assista au procès, comme il le signale lui-même dans l'Apologie, bien que le Phédon le dise absent, malade, le jour de la mort. Selon la lettre, ce dénouement le conduisit à la conclusion qui traverse toute son œuvre : les cités ne cesseront de souffrir de leurs maux que lorsque les philosophes gouverneront ou que les gouvernants philosopheront véritablement. Après l'exécution, il se réfugia quelque temps à Mégare, auprès du socratique Euclide.

Voyages et Académie

Les sources anciennes lui prêtent ensuite des voyages à Cyrène, dans l'Italie des pythagoriciens et en Égypte. Seul le contact avec les pythagoriciens est bien attesté : vers quarante ans, il visita l'Italie du Sud, se lia d'amitié avec Archytas de Tarente et passa à Syracuse, où il rencontra Dion, beau-frère du tyran Denys Ier. L'histoire selon laquelle le tyran l'aurait fait vendre comme esclave à Égine, et qu'un Cyrénaïque l'aurait racheté, provient de biographes tardifs et ne figure pas dans la Lettre VII.

De retour à Athènes, vers 387 av. J.-C., il établit son école près du gymnase de l'Académie, un enclos boisé consacré au héros Académos, au nord-ouest de la ville. Ce n'était pas une université au sens moderne, mais une communauté d'étude et de vie commune où l'on étudiait les mathématiques, l'astronomie, la dialectique et la théorie politique, et où travaillèrent des mathématiciens comme Théétète et Eudoxe. Aristote y arriva en 367 av. J.-C., à dix-sept ans, et y resta une vingtaine d'années. Diogène Laërce mentionne même deux femmes, Axiothéa de Phlionte et Lasthénie de Mantinée, parmi ses disciples.

La tentation de la Sicile

La philosophie politique de Platon connut une épreuve réelle. En 367 av. J.-C., Denys Ier étant mort, Dion lui demanda de venir éduquer le nouveau tyran, Denys II, dans l'espoir d'en faire le gouvernant philosophe de la République. L'expérience se solda par l'exil de Dion et le retour de Platon à Athènes. Vers 361, il retourna à Syracuse pour tenter de les réconcilier, y fut retenu contre son gré et ne put repartir que grâce à Archytas. En 357, Dion renversa Denys avec l'appui de membres de l'Académie, et en 354 il fut assassiné par Callippe, un Athénien de son propre entourage. Les Lettres VII et VIII se présentent comme le bilan de cet échec.

Les dialogues

À la différence de presque tous les philosophes antérieurs, dont nous ne connaissons l'œuvre que par fragments, Platon nous est parvenu tout entier, du moins tel que l'Antiquité le lui attribuait : trente-cinq dialogues et un recueil de treize lettres, ordonnés au Ier siècle apr. J.-C. par Thrasylle en neuf tétralogies, auxquels s'ajoute une poignée d'œuvres déjà reconnues comme apocryphes. Platon n'y parle jamais à la première personne ; Socrate mène d'ordinaire la conversation, et dans les dialogues tardifs il cède ce rôle à un Étranger d'Élée, à Timée ou à un Étranger d'Athènes.

La chronologie fait débat, mais on s'accorde sur un schéma général. Les dialogues brefs, comme le Lachès ou l'Euthyphron, examinent une vertu et s'achèvent sans réponse. Le Phédon, le Banquet, la République et le Phèdre exposent la théorie des Formes, l'immortalité de l'âme et l'ascension de l'amour vers la Beauté. Le Parménide, le Théétète, le Sophiste, le Timée, le Philèbe et les Lois, ouvrage qu'il laissa sans l'avoir mis au net à sa mort, soumettent ces idées à la critique et les étendent à la cosmologie et à la législation.

Le Phèdre et la Lettre VII ajoutent une mise en garde sur l'écriture elle-même : l'essentiel ne se transmet pas dans les livres, il s'allume dans l'âme au terme d'une longue fréquentation. Aristote fait allusion à des « doctrines non écrites » de son maître, et la célèbre leçon publique « Sur le Bien », où Platon parla de mathématiques et conclut que le Bien est l'Un, laissa son auditoire perplexe. La part de sa pensée restée hors des dialogues demeure l'une des grandes controverses des études platoniciennes.

Mort et héritage

Platon mourut à Athènes en 348 ou 347 av. J.-C., âgé d'environ quatre-vingts ans, et fut enseveli à l'Académie. Les sources divergent sur les circonstances : un banquet de noces, le travail d'écriture, une nuit de fièvre à écouter une flûte. Son neveu Speusippe lui succéda, et l'école, au prix de profondes transformations, se maintint pendant des siècles.

Le texte parvint jusqu'à l'imprimerie grâce aux manuscrits byzantins — le plus ancien à conserver complètes les six premières tétralogies, le Clarkianus de la Bibliothèque bodléienne, fut copié en 895 — et en 1578 Henri Estienne publia à Genève l'édition dont la pagination sert encore à le citer : « République 514a » renvoie à la page 514, section a, de ce volume. En castillan, Patricio de Azcárate donna entre 1871 et 1872 la première traduction des œuvres complètes.

Son influence est sans équivalent. Plotin se considéra comme son interprète et fonda le néoplatonisme ; Augustin d'Hippone reconnut que les livres platoniciens lui avaient ouvert le chemin du Dieu chrétien ; le Timée, en latin, fut pendant des siècles presque tout ce que l'Occident lut de lui, et la falsafa islamique comme la théologie juive médiévale le reçurent par leurs propres voies. La traduction latine intégrale de Marsile Ficin, en 1484, le replaça au centre de la culture européenne. Alfred North Whitehead résuma la dette en écrivant que la tradition philosophique européenne consiste en une série de notes de bas de page à Platon.

Sources: Nails, Debra, The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics, Indianápolis, Hackett, 2002 (entrada «Plato» y apéndices cronológicos). · Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource). · Platón (atribuida), Carta VII, 324a–352a, en Platonis Opera, ed. John Burnet, vol. V, Oxford Classical Texts, 1907; trad. española de Juan Zaragoza y Pilar Gómez Cardó en Platón, Diálogos VII, Madrid, Gredos (Biblioteca Clásica Gredos 162), 1992. · Cooper, John M. (ed.) y Hutchinson, D. S. (ed. asociado), Plato: Complete Works, Indianápolis, Hackett, 1997 (introducción del editor sobre el corpus, las tetralogías de Trasilo y la autenticidad de cada obra). · Riginos, Alice Swift, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of Plato, Leiden, Brill (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 3), 1976.

Chronologie

La vie, année après année

Chaque point est un événement documenté. Cliquez pour le lire, avec sa source et son degré de certitude.

  1. v. 428 av. J.-C. · 0 ans

    Birth

    Born into an aristocratic Athenian family: his father, Ariston, claimed descent from King Codrus; his mother, Perictione, from Solon's family. Diogenes Laertius dates the birth to the 88th Olympiad (428/427 BC), and Apollodorus has it coincide with Apollo's birthday. He had two brothers, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a sister, Potone.

    Probable

  2. v. 423 av. J.-C. · 5 ans

    His mother marries Pyrilampes

    After Ariston's death, Perictione marries her uncle Pyrilampes, a friend of Pericles; from this marriage is born Antiphon, Plato's half-brother, who appears in the Parmenides.

    Probable

  3. v. 408 av. J.-C. · 20 ans

    With Socrates

    According to Diogenes Laertius, at twenty he began to frequent Socrates; tradition adds that he then burned his tragedies. The date and the burning episode are traditional.

    Tradition

  4. 404 av. J.-C. · 24 ans

    The Thirty Tyrants

    After Athens' defeat, an oligarchic government including Critias, his mother's cousin, and Charmides, his uncle, invites the young Plato to collaborate. According to the Seventh Letter, its violence — and its attempt to involve Socrates in an unjust arrest — turned him away.

    Probable

  5. 399 av. J.-C. · 29 ans

    Trial and death of Socrates

    Socrates is condemned to death for impiety and corrupting the young. Plato attends the trial, as he states in the Apology (34a, 38b), but according to the Phaedo (59b) he was not present at the death because he was ill.

    Documenté

  6. v. 399 av. J.-C. · 29 ans

    Withdrawal to Megara

    After the execution, with other Socratics, he takes refuge for a while in Megara with Euclides, according to Hermodorus as cited by Diogenes Laertius.

    Probable

  7. v. 395 av. J.-C. · 33 ans

    Journeys of study

    Ancient tradition credits him with journeys to Cyrene, to the mathematician Theodorus, to the Pythagoreans of Italy and to Egypt. Only the contact with the Pythagoreans is well attested; the Egyptian journey is doubtful.

    Tradition

  8. v. 388 av. J.-C. · 40 ans

    First journey to Sicily

    Around the age of forty (Seventh Letter, 324a) he visits Italy, where he befriends Archytas of Tarentum, and the court of Dionysius I in Syracuse, where he meets the young Dion. Later tradition relates that the tyrant had him sold as a slave in Aegina.

    Probable

  9. v. 387 av. J.-C. · 41 ans

    Founding of the Academy

    He acquires land near the gymnasium of the Academy, north-west of Athens, and founds the community of study that will take its name. Mathematics, astronomy, dialectic and politics are studied there; it will survive, with transformations, for several centuries.

    Probable

  10. 367 av. J.-C. · 61 ans

    Aristotle enters the Academy

    Aristotle, aged seventeen, arrives from Stagira and remains in the Academy for some twenty years, until Plato's death.

    Documenté

  11. v. 367 av. J.-C. – 365 av. J.-C. · 61 ans

    Second journey to Sicily

    After Dionysius I's death, Dion calls him to educate the new tyrant, Dionysius II. The experiment fails: Dion is exiled and Plato returns to Athens.

    Probable

  12. v. 361 av. J.-C. – 360 av. J.-C. · 67 ans

    Third journey to Sicily

    He returns to Syracuse at Dionysius II's request, hoping to reconcile him with Dion. Held against his will, he manages to leave thanks to the intervention of Archytas of Tarentum.

    Probable

  13. 357 av. J.-C. · 71 ans

    Dion's expedition

    Dion, with support from members of the Academy, overthrows Dionysius II. In 354 BC he is murdered by Callippus, an Athenian of his circle. Letters VII and VIII present themselves as written after his death.

    Probable

  14. v. 348 av. J.-C. · 80 ans

    Death

    He dies in Athens in the first year of the 108th Olympiad (348/347 BC), aged about eighty or eighty-one, according to Hermippus as cited by Diogenes Laertius. He is buried in the Academy. He leaves the Laws not yet fair-copied.

    Probable

  15. v. 347 av. J.-C.

    Speusippus heads the Academy

    He is succeeded by his nephew Speusippus, son of his sister Potone. Aristotle leaves Athens.

    Documenté

  16. v. 14 av. J.-C.

    Thrasyllus' tetralogies

    In the first century AD, the astrologer Thrasyllus, close to Tiberius, arranges the works in nine tetralogies, the order in which the corpus has come down to us.

    Probable

  17. 895

    The Codex Clarkianus

    John the Calligrapher copies for Arethas of Caesarea the codex now preserved in the Bodleian Library, the main witness for the first six tetralogies.

    Documenté

  18. 1484

    Ficino's Latin translation

    Marsilio Ficino publishes the first complete Latin translation of the dialogues, commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici, which restores Plato to the centre of European thought.

    Documenté

  19. 1578

    The Stephanus edition

    Henri Estienne publishes the Greek text in three volumes with Jean de Serres' Latin translation; its pagination becomes the universal system of reference.

    Documenté

  20. 1871 – 1872

    Complete works in Spanish

    Patricio de Azcárate publishes the first Spanish translation of the complete works (11 volumes, 1871–1872).

    Documenté

Œuvres

Œuvres essentielles

Les œuvres sans lesquelles on ne comprend pas son héritage.

Apology of Socrates — Plato

Œuvre écrite · v. 395 av. J.-C.

Apology of Socrates

Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους

A recreation of the defence speech Socrates delivered in 399 BC before the Athenian popular jury, accused of not recognising the city's gods and of corrupting the young. Socrates explains the Delphic oracle, his mission of examining those who think they know, and his conscious ignorance; after the verdict he ironically proposes to be maintained in the Prytaneum, and accepts death declaring that the unexamined life is not worth living. Plato was present at the trial (34a, 38b). It is the classic doorway into philosophy.

8 éditions

Phaedo — Plato

Œuvre écrite · v. 380 av. J.-C.

Phaedo

Φαίδων

Phaedo of Elis tells Echecrates of Socrates' last hours in prison: the conversation on why the philosopher does not fear death, the arguments for the immortality of the soul (from opposites, recollection, affinity with the invisible, participation in Forms), the closing myth on the fate of souls, and the calm death by hemlock. Here the theory of Forms appears explicitly, as does the definition of philosophy as practice for dying. Plato is said to have been absent through illness (59b).

9 éditions

Symposium — Plato

Œuvre écrite · v. 380 av. J.-C.

Symposium

Συμπόσιον

At the house of the poet Agathon, celebrating his victory in the tragic contest of 416 BC, the guests deliver speeches in honour of Eros: Phaedrus, Pausanias, the physician Eryximachus, Aristophanes with the myth of spherical beings cut in two, Agathon, and Socrates, who relays the teaching of the priestess Diotima on the ladder of love, from one beautiful body to Beauty itself. It closes with the entry of a drunken Alcibiades, who delivers a eulogy of Socrates. A literary masterpiece and source of the whole Western mysticism of love.

9 éditions

Republic — Plato

Œuvre écrite · v. 375 av. J.-C.

Republic

Πολιτεία

In the Piraeus, after a festival, Socrates discusses what justice is. To see it writ large he imagines an ideal city with three classes, ruled by philosophers whose education culminates in knowledge of the Form of the Good. Its ten books contain the critique of poetry, the equal education of women guardians, the images of the sun, the line and the cave, the typology of degenerate regimes and the myth of Er on the choice of lives. Plato's central work and that of political philosophy.

13 éditions

Citations

Citations localisées dans une œuvre précise. Chacune porte sa provenance et son degré de fiabilité.

He knows nothing, and thinks that he knows; I neither know nor think that I know.

οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι.

VérifiéeApología de Sócrates 21d (habla Sócrates). Español: traducción literal propia desde el griego (ed. Burnet). Inglés: Jowett, 1892 (dominio público).

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Citations apocryphes ou d'attribution contestée (2)
  • «'Let no one ignorant of geometry enter.'»

    An inscription attributed to the Academy's door that appears only in sixth-century AD commentators; it is not found in any work of Plato or in sources of his time.

  • «'Only the dead have seen the end of war.'»

    A widespread false attribution: it appears in no work of Plato. It comes from George Santayana, Soliloquies in England (1922), the soliloquy 'Tipperary'; General Douglas MacArthur popularised it as Platonic in an address at West Point (1962).

Dernières paroles

Il n'existe aucun témoignage vérifiable de ses dernières paroles.

No final words of Plato survive. The ancient sources disagree even on the circumstances of his death: Hermippus, cited by Diogenes Laertius (III 2), says he died at a wedding feast; Cicero (On Old Age 13) that he died while writing, at eighty-one; and the Herculaneum papyrus of Philodemus' Index Academicorum, which goes back through Neanthes to Philip of Opus, relates that on his last night, feverish, he received a Chaldean visitor and that a Thracian girl played the flute while he marked the rhythm for her with a gesture. None of these versions records a sentence.

Source: Riginos, Alice Swift, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of Plato, Leiden, Brill (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 3), 1976.

Interroger

Ce que répond son œuvre

Douze grandes questions de l'humanité et ce que ses textes permettent d'y répondre, références à l'appui. Nous ne lui prêtons jamais de paroles.

  • Qu'est-ce que l'Absolu ? Dieu existe-t-il ?

    A Good beyond being and a good craftsman who willed the world

    À la fois personnel et impersonnelCela se déduit de sa doctrine

    In Plato two faces of the ultimate coexist. In the Republic the Good is the source from which things receive being and knowability, and it is not essence but still beyond essence: an impersonal principle named only by analogy with the sun. In the Timaeus, by contrast, a good demiurge, free of envy, wills that everything become as like him as possible and orders the cosmos looking to an eternal model. The Laws add gods who care for small things as much as great and punish impiety. Plato does not explicitly unify the two levels; the later tradition read them as degrees of a single divine reality.

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  • Qui suis-je ? Existe-t-il un vrai soi ?

    The immortal soul, akin to the Forms, imprisoned in the body

    Une âme créée et immortelleIl le dit expressément

    Plato identifies the human being with the soul and devotes his most famous proofs to it. In the Phaedo the soul is like the divine, immortal, intelligible and always the same as itself, while the body resembles the mortal and changing; to philosophise is to separate it from the body. The Phaedrus defines it as a self-moving principle of motion that therefore is neither born nor dies. In the Timaeus the demiurge fashions the immortal part of the human soul from the same mixture as the world soul and entrusts it to the lesser gods. Its destiny is to become like God as far as possible. Yet Plato also ascribes successive reincarnations to this soul.

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  • Pourquoi souffrons-nous ?

    Injustice is a civil war in the soul, and the body feeds it

    Le désordre social et moralIl le dit expressément

    Plato gives two complementary explanations. In the Phaedo the body fills the soul with loves, desires, fears and images, and from its needs arise wars, revolts and fights over money. In the Republic evil is thought of as disorder: the soul has three parts, reason, spirit and appetite, and justice consists in each doing its own work under reason's rule; injustice is an inner uprising, a sickness of the soul. The same holds for the city, whose degenerate forms correspond to disordered souls. We suffer when order is inverted and appetite rules, in the soul and in the city.

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  • Que se passe-t-il après la mort ?

    The immortal soul is judged and reborn until philosophy frees it

    Renaissance selon le karmaIl le dit expressément

    Plato upholds the immortality of the soul with arguments and describes it with myths. In the Phaedo philosophy is a practice of dying, because it prepares the soul to separate from the body; souls attached to it are reincarnated according to their habits, as asses, wolves or bees, while those purified by philosophy live with the gods. The Phaedrus tells of a ten-thousand-year cycle in which only the philosopher's soul regains its wings sooner. In the myth of Er, at the end of the Republic, judged souls choose their next life and drink from the river of forgetfulness. Plato warns that the form of the tale is approximate but that the risk of believing it is worth taking.

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  • Comment atteint-on la libération ou le salut ?

    Turning the whole soul towards what is and becoming like God

    Par la connaissance directeIl le dit expressément

    For Plato liberation is a conversion of knowledge. The allegory of the cave presents humans chained before shadows; education does not consist in putting knowledge into the soul but in turning it whole, away from what becomes, until it can bear the contemplation of what is and of the Good. The way passes through mathematics and culminates in dialectic. The Phaedo calls philosophy purification and a practice of dying; the Symposium describes an ascent of love from beautiful bodies to Beauty itself; the Theaetetus sums up the goal as flight from here to there, which is becoming like God by becoming just and holy with understanding.

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  • Faut-il un maître ?

    Truth catches after long companionship, like a spark that leaps

    La communauté et la traditionIl le dit expressément

    Plato founded the Academy, a community of study and life, and in his dialogues learning always happens between persons. The Seventh Letter, of disputed authenticity but very old, states the idea precisely: the essential cannot be put into words like other studies, but after long companionship with the matter itself and a shared life, it is suddenly born in the soul like a light kindled from a leaping spark. The Phaedrus criticises writing because it cannot answer the questioner and prefers the living word sown in a suitable soul. In the cave, someone has to unchain the prisoner and force him upward. Knowledge is passed on in a prolonged relationship, not in a book.

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  • Le monde est-il réel ?

    The sensible always becomes and never fully is: an image of what is

    Apparence sur l'unique réalitéIl le dit expressément

    Plato distinguishes what always is and never becomes, grasped by thought, from what always becomes and never fully is, the object of opinion and the senses. In the allegory of the cave the prisoners take projected shadows for reality; the divided line grades the levels of reality from images up to the Forms. But the sensible world is not nothing: in the Timaeus it is the work of a good craftsman, the most beautiful of generated things, an image of the intelligible which the dialogue's last sentence calls a perceptible god. The world is real as an image; the fully real are the Forms and, above them, the Good.

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  • Qu'est-ce que l'amour ?

    Eros ascends from beautiful bodies to Beauty itself

    Le désir ardent et l'unionIl le dit expressément

    Plato makes love a force of ascent. In the Symposium, Diotima explains that Eros is not a god but an intermediary, child of Resource and Poverty, always lacking and always seeking; he desires the beautiful because he desires the good and immortality. Rightly guided, he climbs by degrees: from one beautiful body to all, from bodies to souls, to laws, to sciences, until suddenly beholding Beauty itself, the moment when, if ever, life is worth living. The Phaedrus describes love as divine madness: the sight of the beloved reminds the soul of the beauty it beheld before birth and makes its wings grow. To love is to remember the origin and return to it.

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  • Sommes-nous libres ou tout est-il déterminé ?

    The responsibility is the chooser's; the god is not responsible

    Le karma et le choixIl le dit expressément

    The myth of Er, at the end of the Republic, is Plato's great image on this question. Souls, before being reborn, choose their next life from many patterns; a prophet proclaims that virtue has no master, that each will have more or less of it as he honours or scorns it, and that the responsibility is the chooser's, not the god's. But the choice is not neutral: most choose according to the habits of their former life, and once made, the Fates render it irrevocable. The Laws likewise hold that God left to our wills the causes of our being one way or another. The past conditions choice but does not replace it.

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  • Pourquoi méditer ou prier ?

    Turning the soul towards what is until it contemplates the Good

    Voir la réalité telle qu'elle estIl le dit expressément

    Plato proposes no meditation techniques, but contemplation is the centre of his philosophy. True education consists in turning the whole soul from what becomes until it can bear the sight of what is; the ascent of the Symposium culminates in the sudden contemplation of Beauty itself; the Phaedo describes philosophy as the soul's gathering into itself, away from the senses, to see the truth. Nor does Plato neglect prayer: the Timaeus opens with the remark that everyone with a little sense invokes the divine at the start of any undertaking. But the goal is to see: to know reality as it is.

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  • La raison peut-elle connaître l'ultime ?

    After dialectic, the ultimate is born in the soul like a leaping spark

    L'ultime est au-delà du mentalIl le dit expressément

    Plato trusts reason as few have: dialectic is the only method that ascends to the unhypothetical principle. But at the summit language falls short. The Good is beyond essence, and Socrates in the Republic declines to say what it is and offers only an image, the sun. In the Symposium Beauty itself is beheld suddenly at the end of the ascent. And the Seventh Letter states that the most serious matters cannot be put into words like other studies, but after long companionship with the subject, are born suddenly in the soul, like light kindled from a spark. Reason prepares the way; the ultimate is seen, not proved.

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  • Se retirer du monde ou le transformer ?

    Until philosophers rule, there will be no respite from evils for cities

    Ordonner la sociétéIl le dit expressément

    Plato sought to transform the world through government. The Republic holds that there will be no respite from evils for cities until philosophers rule or kings truly philosophise; the philosopher who has left the cave and beheld the Good is obliged to go back down to govern, though he would prefer contemplation. The Seventh Letter relates how the young Plato, disillusioned with Athenian politics after Socrates' death, reached that conviction, and his journeys to Syracuse attempted to put it into practice. The Laws, his last work, design a possible city in detail. Wisdom is realised in the good order of the city and the soul.

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Anecdotes et récits

Anecdotes et récits

Contestéc. 410 a. C.

The name Plato

Diogenes Laertius relates that the philosopher was really called Aristocles, after his grandfather, and that it was his wrestling master, Ariston of Argos, who named him Plato for his robust build; others, he adds, ascribed it to the breadth of his style or of his forehead, since platys means 'broad'. The story was repeated for centuries and fed the image of an athletic Plato, who according to some sources even competed at the Isthmian Games. Modern scholarship is sceptical: Plato was a common name in fifth-century Athens, attested in inscriptions, and the explanation from breadth has the air of the etymologies Hellenistic biographers invented from a name.

Origine du récit: Diogenes Laertius III 4, citing Alexander's Successions and Neanthes. Riginos (Platonica, 1976) and Nails (2002) treat it as a probable biographical invention.

Source: Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource).

Tradition oralec. 408 a. C.

The tragedies in the fire

Plato, tradition says, had written poems, dithyrambs and tragedies, and was about to enter a tetralogy in the contest of the Dionysia when, in front of the theatre, he heard Socrates speak. That same night he threw his works into the fire, parodying a line of the Iliad: 'Come hither, Hephaestus, Plato now has need of thee.' It is the founding scene of a poet's conversion into a philosopher, and it explains both the dramatic talent of the dialogues and the severity with which the Republic judges the poets. But there is no contemporary evidence: the story appears in late biographers who liked to dramatise the conversions of the wise.

Origine du récit: Diogenes Laertius III 5; Aelian, Varia Historia II 30. The line parodies Iliad XVIII 392. Riginos classes it among the literary conversion anecdotes.

Source: Riginos, Alice Swift, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of Plato, Leiden, Brill (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 3), 1976.

Récit hagiographiquec. 408 a. C.

The dream of the swan

On the eve of meeting Plato, Socrates dreamed that he held on his lap a cygnet that suddenly grew feathers and flew up singing sweetly. The next day the young Plato was introduced to him and Socrates said that this was the swan. The swan was the bird of Apollo, the god with whose birth tradition made Plato's coincide, and the swan's song recalls the Phaedo, where Socrates says that swans sing most beautifully before dying. The story belongs to the legend that, from very early on, surrounded Plato with Apollonian signs.

Origine du récit: Diogenes Laertius III 5; also Pausanias I 30.3, Apuleius (On Plato I 1) and Olympiodorus. Riginos (1976) places it in the Apollonian cycle of Plato's biography.

Source: Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource).

Contestéc. 387 a. C.

Sold as a slave in Aegina

After his first stay in Syracuse, Plato irritated Dionysius I with his frankness. According to the ancient account, the tyrant handed him over to the Spartan Pollis, who put him ashore at Aegina, then at war with Athens, where he was offered for sale as a slave. Anniceris of Cyrene recognised him and ransomed him for twenty or thirty minae, and afterwards refused reimbursement from Plato's friends; with that money, one version says, the garden of the Academy was bought. The Seventh Letter, so detailed about the Sicilian journeys, does not mention the episode, and several historians regard it as biographical romance.

Origine du récit: Diogenes Laertius III 18–21; Diodorus Siculus XV 7; Plutarch, Dion 5. Absent from the Seventh Letter. Riginos and Nails discuss its plausibility.

Source: Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource).

Témoignages. IV a. C.

The lecture 'On the Good'

Aristotle often told, according to his pupil Aristoxenus, what happened to those who attended a public lecture by Plato entitled 'On the Good'. Each expected to hear about one of the recognised human goods — wealth, health, strength, some marvellous happiness — but Plato spoke about mathematics, numbers, geometry and astronomy, and concluded that the Good is One. To most it seemed strange and paradoxical; some scoffed and others complained. The anecdote is the most direct testimony to Plato's so-called 'unwritten doctrines' and to the distance between his oral teaching and his dialogues.

Origine du récit: Aristoxenus, Elementa harmonica II 30–31, who transmits it as a story Aristotle often told. It is second-hand but close testimony: Aristoxenus was Aristotle's direct pupil.

Source: Aristóxeno, Elementa harmonica II 30–31 (testimonio de la lección «Sobre el Bien»), citado y comentado en Kraut, «Plato», SEP, y en Guthrie, HGP V.

Invérifiables. IV a. C. (atribuido)

'Let no one ignorant of geometry enter'

It is said that over the door of the Academy there was an inscription: 'Let no one ignorant of geometry enter.' The phrase sums up well the place the Republic and the Philebus give mathematics as the soul's preparation for dialectic, and for centuries it has been quoted as the school's motto. But no source from Plato's time, or from the following centuries, mentions it. It first appears in Alexandrian commentators of the sixth century AD — such as Philoponus, Olympiodorus or Elias — nearly nine hundred years after the Academy's foundation, and there is no archaeological trace of it.

Origine du récit: First mentions in sixth-century AD Alexandrian Neoplatonic commentaries (John Philoponus, In De anima; Elias, In Categorias), and in a scholion on Aelius Aristides. Riginos (1976) considers it a late invention.

Source: Riginos, Alice Swift, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of Plato, Leiden, Brill (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 3), 1976.

Tradition orales. IV a. C.

Plato's man

When Plato defined man as 'a featherless biped' and the definition was applauded, Diogenes the Cynic plucked a cockerel, brought it into the school and said: 'This is Plato's man.' Since then, the story adds, 'with broad nails' was added to the definition. The anecdote satirises the method of division that the Sophist and the Statesman really practise — the Statesman classes man among featherless bipeds (266e) — and portrays the rivalry between Plato's school and Diogenes' street Cynicism.

Origine du récit: Diogenes Laertius VI 40. The definition 'featherless biped' also appears in the pseudo-Platonic Definitions (415a). The anecdote circulated as a Cynic chreia, not as testimony.

Source: Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource).

Enseignements

Enseignements

Les notions qui structurent sa pensée, expliquées dans leur contexte.

Theory of Forms (Ideas)teoria-de-las-formas
Plato holds that, besides sensible things, which are many and changing, there exist intelligible realities, eternal and unchanging — the Forms or Ideas (eidos, idea) — such as the Beautiful itself, the Just itself or the Equal itself. Sensible things are beautiful or equal because they 'participate' in the corresponding Form, or imperfectly imitate it. The Forms are the proper object of knowledge: of what changes there can only be opinion (doxa). The theory appears explicitly in the Phaedo, the Symposium and the Republic; the Parmenides subjects it to very serious objections and the late dialogues reformulate it as a web of kinds that combine. Plato never set it out as a closed system, and his pupils — Aristotle first — argued endlessly over what exactly he meant by 'participation'.

It answers Heraclitus (the flux of the sensible) and Parmenides (only what is can be known), and Socrates' search for definitions.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

The Form of the Goodidea-del-bien
In the Republic (505a–509c) Socrates calls the Form of the Good 'the greatest study'. He does not define it: he explains it with the image of the sun. As the sun gives visible things the light that makes them seen and also their coming to be and growth, the Good gives the Forms their intelligibility and their being, and is itself 'beyond being in dignity and power' (509b). It is the goal of the philosopher's education and the measure that must guide the ruler. That formula, 'beyond being', was decisive for Plotinus, who identified the Good with the One, and for Christian, Jewish and Islamic negative theology. The anecdote of the lecture 'On the Good' suggests that in his oral teaching Plato related it to the One and to mathematical principles.

It crowns the central images of the Republic (sun, line, cave).

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

The allegory of the cavealegoria-de-la-caverna
At the start of Book VII of the Republic (514a–521b), Socrates asks us to imagine prisoners chained from childhood in a cave, who see only the shadows cast on the back wall by objects others carry before a fire. For them, the shadows are reality. If one were freed and forced to climb towards the exit, the light would blind him; little by little he would see the objects, then the things outside, their reflections, the stars and finally the sun itself. And if he returned to tell of it, the others would mock him and even try to kill him, a transparent allusion to Socrates. Plato presents it as an image of education (paideia): it does not consist in putting sight into blind eyes but in 'turning' the whole soul towards the light.

It completes the images of the sun and the divided line; it is the most commented page of Western philosophy.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

Recollection (anamnesis)anamnesis
To resolve the paradox of how one can search for what one does not know, the Meno proposes that the immortal soul has already seen all things before birth and that learning is recollecting. Socrates demonstrates it by having an untaught slave discover, with questions alone, how to construct a square of double area. The Phaedo uses recollection as a proof of immortality: we recognise that two sticks are 'nearly' equal because we already have the notion of Equality itself, which we have not drawn from the senses. The Phaedrus turns it into myth: the soul recalls the Beauty it beheld when it travelled with the gods. The doctrine grounds the idea of a priori knowledge and of the teacher as midwife rather than supplier.

It has Pythagorean roots (immortality and transmigration of the soul).

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

Immortality and parts of the soulinmortalidad-del-alma
Plato is the first philosopher to argue systematically for the immortality of the soul: in the Phaedo, from opposites, recollection, the soul's affinity with the invisible and its essential link with the Form of Life; in the Republic and the Phaedrus, because the soul is the principle of its own motion. At the same time, the Republic (Book IV) distinguishes three parts in the soul — reason, spirit (thymos) and appetite — whose harmony under the rule of reason is inner justice; the Phaedrus paints it as a charioteer with two winged horses. The eschatological myths of the Gorgias, the Phaedo and the Republic (myth of Er) complete the doctrine with a judgement of the dead and a choice of future lives.

It takes up Orphic and Pythagorean inheritances and subjects them to philosophical argument.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

Eros and the ladder of beautyeros
In the Symposium (201d–212a), Socrates repeats what Diotima of Mantinea taught him: Eros is not a god but an intermediate daimon, son of Poros (Resource) and Penia (Poverty), always in need and always resourceful, the desire to possess the good forever. Rightly guided, love ascends by stages: from one beautiful body to all bodies, from them to souls, to laws and institutions, to the branches of knowledge and finally, 'suddenly', to the contemplation of Beauty itself, pure, unmixed, eternal. One who arrives there begets not images of virtue but true virtue. The Phaedrus adds the madness of love as a divine gift that makes the soul recall Beauty. It is the source of Western love mysticism, from Plotinus and Pseudo-Dionysius to Ficino and the Renaissance poets.

Expressed as the teaching of a priestess, at a banquet, among speeches; the later 'Platonic love' greatly simplifies the doctrine.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

The philosopher-ruler and justicefilosofo-rey
The Republic defines justice as each part doing its own: in the city, that producers, guardians and rulers fulfil their function; in the soul, that reason, spirit and appetite keep their order. And it concludes (473c–d) that the ills of cities will not cease until philosophers rule or rulers truly philosophise. The rulers, men and women alike, are trained for decades in mathematics and dialectic until they know the Good, live without private property or families of their own, and accept power as a duty. The Seventh Letter attributes this conviction to Plato from his youth and links it to his journeys to Syracuse. In the Laws, more realistic, government passes to written law, persuasive and supervised.

It arises from the experience of Socrates' condemnation by the democracy and of the tyranny of the Thirty; it has been read as utopia, as critique and, in the twentieth century (Popper), as the seed of totalitarianism.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

Becoming like God (homoiosis theoi)homoiosis-theo
In the digression of the Theaetetus (176a–b), Socrates says that evil cannot vanish from the earth and that we must therefore try to flee from here to there as quickly as possible; and to flee is to become like God as far as possible, and to become like God is to become just and holy with wisdom. The formula joins ethics with contemplation: virtue is not only right conduct but participation in the divine. The Timaeus completes it by asking the soul to attune its motions to the ordered revolutions of the heavens, and the Republic with the image of the philosopher who, gazing on what is ordered and divine, becomes ordered and divine. The Middle Platonists made it the definition of life's end, and through them it passed to the Church Fathers as theosis.

It is the bridge between Plato's philosophy and the spirituality of later Platonisms.

Source: Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.

Vidéos

Vidéos

Enregistrements, entretiens et documentaires. Les vidéos sont lues depuis YouTube ; elles ne sont pas hébergées ici.

  • 2. Socratic Citizenship: Plato's Apology

    Conférence· EN· 2006· 46 min

    YaleCoursesChaîne officielle

  • 3. Socratic Citizenship: Plato's Crito

    Conférence· EN· 2006· 47 min

    YaleCoursesChaîne officielle

  • 4. Philosophers and Kings: Plato's Republic, I-II

    Conférence· EN· 2006· 47 min

    YaleCoursesChaîne officielle

  • 5. Philosophers and Kings: Plato's Republic, III-IV

    Conférence· EN· 2006· 47 min

    YaleCoursesChaîne officielle

  • 6. Philosophers and Kings: Plato's Republic, V

    Conférence· EN· 2006· 45 min

    YaleCoursesChaîne officielle

  • Great Minds - Part 1 - Plato's Republic I: Justice, Power, and Knowledge

    Conférence· EN· 46 min

    Michael SugrueChaîne officielle

  • Plato's Symposium: The Dialectic of Reason, Love, and Wisdom

    Conférence· EN· 49 min

    Michael SugrueChaîne officielle

  • Socrates & Plato's Philosophy - Myles Burnyeat & Bryan Magee (1987)

    Entretien· EN· 1987· 44 min

    Philosophy Overdose

  • Plato and Aristotle: Crash Course History of Science #3

    Analyse· EN· 2018· 12 min

    CrashCourseChaîne officielle

  • PHILOSOPHY - The Good Life: Plato [HD]

    Analyse· EN· 6 min

    Wireless PhilosophyChaîne officielle

  • Who did Plato (not) Love? Oxford Abridged Short Talks

    Conférence· EN· 12 min

    University of OxfordChaîne officielle

  • Mentira la verdad IV: Platón, Apología de Sócrates - Canal Encuentro

    Analyse· ES· 27 min

    Canal EncuentroChaîne officielle

  • 01-03-2013. Timeo: El mito de Platón y la creación científica del mundo.

    Documentaire· ES· 2013· 27 min

    UNEDChaîne officielle

  • La alegoría de la caverna de Platón - Alex Gendler

    Analyse· ES· 5 min

    Sé Curioso — TED-EdChaîne officielle

  • La filosofía helenística (IV): El neoplatonismo · La March

    Conférence· ES· 59 min

    Fundación Juan MarchChaîne officielle

Galerie

Galerie

Images dont la licence a été vérifiée. Chacune conserve son auteur et son attribution.

Manuscrits

Manuscrits

Témoins manuscrits et textes anciens, avec leur dépositaire et leurs conditions de consultation.

  • GRC · Greek minuscule · s. IV a. C.

    Πλάτωνος διάλογοι (tetralogías I–VI)

    Témoin conservé
    Codex Clarkianus (sigla B), pergamino, año 895
    Dépositaire
    Bodleian Library, Oxford · MS. E. D. Clarke 39
    Numérisation
    digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/…
  • GRC · Greek minuscule · s. IV a. C. (espurios, ss. IV–I a. C.)

    Πλάτωνος διάλογοι (tetralogías VIII–IX y espurios)

    Témoin conservé
    Codex Parisinus graecus 1807 (sigla A), pergamino, s. IX
    Dépositaire
    Bibliothèque nationale de France, París · Grec 1807
    Numérisation
    gallica.bnf.fr/…
  • GRC · Greek majuscule (bookhand) · s. IV a. C.

    Πολιτεία (fragmentos)

    Témoin conservé
    P. Oxy. LII 3679, papiro, s. III d. C.
    Dépositaire
    Sackler Library / Egypt Exploration Society, Oxford · P. Oxy. 3679
    Numérisation
    commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:POxy3679_Parts_P…
Manuscrits →

Relations

Relations

Influences, filiations et affinités. On distingue la relation documentée de la similitude identifiée par analyse.

  • Disciple de

    Socrates

    He was his companion for about ten years, attended his trial and made him the protagonist of almost all his dialogues. Distinguishing the historical Socrates from the Platonic one is one of the classic problems of ancient philosophy.

    Relation documentée

  • Maître de

    Aristotle

    Aristotle studied and taught in the Academy for some twenty years (367–347 BC) and developed his own philosophy in critical discussion with the Platonic theory of Forms.

    Relation documentée

  • A reçu l'influence de

    Pythagoras

    Aristotle (Metaphysics I 6) states that Plato followed the Pythagoreans in many things; his friendship with Archytas of Tarentum, the role of mathematics and the doctrine of the immortal soul confirm it.

    Relation documentée

  • A reçu l'influence de

    Heraclitus

    According to Aristotle (Metaphysics I 6), Plato became familiar in his youth with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines of flux, and concluded from them that there is no knowledge of sensible things.

    Relation documentée

  • A reçu l'influence de

    Parmenides

    The distinction between unchanging being and becoming, and the requirement that what is known must be, come from Parmenides, to whom Plato devotes a dialogue and with whom he breaks in the Sophist ('parricide').

    Relation documentée

  • A influencé

    Plotinus

    Plotinus (3rd century AD) regarded himself as a mere interpreter of Plato; Neoplatonism arose from his reading of the Parmenides, the Timaeus, the Republic and the Symposium.

    Relation documentée

  • A influencé

    Augustine of Hippo

    In the Confessions (VII 9) and the City of God (VIII) Augustine acknowledges that the 'books of the Platonists' opened his way to the Christian God; through him Platonism passed into Latin theology.

    Relation documentée

  • A reçu l'influence de

    Empedocles

    The theory of the four elements that the Timaeus reworks geometrically comes from Empedocles.

    Similitude identifiée par analyse

  • En désaccord avec

    Diogenes of Sinope

    Diogenes Laertius (VI 40, 53–54) transmits several gibes by the Cynic against Plato, such as the plucked chicken presented as 'Plato's man'; they are anecdotes of late tradition.

    Relation documentée

  • Idées proches de

    Meister Eckhart

    The ascent of the soul towards a principle beyond being and conceptual knowledge has Platonic and Neoplatonic echoes in Rhineland mysticism.

    Similitude identifiée par analyse

  • A influencé

    Simone Weil

    Simone Weil read Plato as a mystic and devoted studies to him in Intimations of Christianity among the Ancient Greeks.

    Similitude identifiée par analyse

  • Idées proches de

    Adi Shankara

    The distinction between unchanging reality and the changing world of appearances invites comparison with Advaita, though without historical contact.

    Similitude identifiée par analyse

Sources

Sources

Bibliographie et catalogues consultés pour cette fiche.

  1. Nails, Debra, The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics, Indianápolis, Hackett, 2002 (entrada «Plato» y apéndices cronológicos).
  2. Wikidata, «Plato» (Q859): identidad, fechas y nombre en griego (Πλάτων).
  3. Diógenes Laercio, Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro III (Platón), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1925 (texto en Wikisource).
  4. Platón (atribuida), Carta VII, 324a–352a, en Platonis Opera, ed. John Burnet, vol. V, Oxford Classical Texts, 1907; trad. española de Juan Zaragoza y Pilar Gómez Cardó en Platón, Diálogos VII, Madrid, Gredos (Biblioteca Clásica Gredos 162), 1992.
  5. Kraut, Richard, «Plato», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (primera versión 2004; revisión sustantiva 2022), ed. Edward N. Zalta.
  6. Cooper, John M. (ed.) y Hutchinson, D. S. (ed. asociado), Plato: Complete Works, Indianápolis, Hackett, 1997 (introducción del editor sobre el corpus, las tetralogías de Trasilo y la autenticidad de cada obra).
  7. Riginos, Alice Swift, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of Plato, Leiden, Brill (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 3), 1976.
  8. Guthrie, W. K. C., A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV: Plato, the Man and his Dialogues: Earlier Period (1975) y vol. V: The Later Plato and the Academy (1978), Cambridge University Press.
  9. Burnet, John (ed.), Platonis Opera, 5 vols., Oxford Classical Texts, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1900–1907 (texto griego citado por la paginación de Stephanus; edición digital en Perseus).
  10. Open Library: obras y ediciones de Platón (búsqueda por autor, título e ISBN).
  11. Lledó Íñigo, Emilio, «Introducción general», en Platón, Diálogos I, Madrid, Gredos (Biblioteca Clásica Gredos 37), 1981; y plan de la serie de Diálogos I–IX de la Biblioteca Clásica Gredos (1981–1999).
  12. Jowett, Benjamin (trad.), The Dialogues of Plato, 3.ª ed., 5 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1892 (textos en Project Gutenberg).
  13. Azcárate, Patricio de (trad.), Obras completas de Platón, 11 vols., Madrid, Medina y Navarro, 1871–1872 (edición digital en el Proyecto Filosofía en español y en Wikisource).
  14. Burnyeat, Myles y Frede, Michael, The Pseudo-Platonic Seventh Letter, ed. Dominic Scott, Oxford University Press, 2015.
  15. Kahn, Charles H., Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  16. Dorandi, Tiziano (ed.), Filodemo. Storia dei filosofi: Platone e l'Academia (PHerc. 1021 e 164), Nápoles, Bibliopolis, 1991.
  17. Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS. E. D. Clarke 39 (Codex Clarkianus, año 895): ficha y reproducción digital en Digital Bodleian.
  18. Aristóxeno, Elementa harmonica II 30–31 (testimonio de la lección «Sobre el Bien»), citado y comentado en Kraut, «Plato», SEP, y en Guthrie, HGP V.
  19. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Grec 1807 (Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, s. IX), en Gallica.
  20. Suzanne, Bernard, «Did Plato write “Only the dead have seen the end of war”?», Plato and his dialogues (FAQ), 2002; cf. Santayana, George, Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, 1922, n.º 25 «Tipperary».
  21. Whitehead, Alfred North, Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology, Nueva York, Macmillan, 1929, parte II, cap. 1, sección 1 («a series of footnotes to Plato»).
Ayant droit
Los textos griegos de Platón (s. IV a. C.) son de dominio público, como las traducciones antiguas (Jowett, 1892; Burges, 1854–1855; Azcárate, 1871–1872). Las traducciones, introducciones y notas modernas pertenecen a sus traductores y editoriales (Gredos/RBA, Alianza, Akal, Cátedra, Hackett, Harvard University Press, Penguin, Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, entre otras).

En attente de confirmation

Ce que cette fiche n'a pas encore pu établir. Nous préférons le dire plutôt que de combler.

  • Confirmar el índice exacto de Gredos, Diálogos VII (BCG 162, 1992): se ha asumido que contiene Alcibíades I y II, Hiparco, Amantes, Teages, Clitofonte, Minos, Epínomis, los apócrifos (Definiciones, Sobre la justicia, Sobre la virtud, Demódoco, Sísifo, Erixias, Axíoco) y las Cartas; no se ha visto el índice en un catálogo. Alción no se ha asignado a ese volumen.
  • Traductores de cada diálogo en los volúmenes I–III, V y VI de Gredos: no consignados por no haberlos verificado en catálogo (solo República, Eggers Lan; vol. VII, Zaragoza y Gómez Cardó).
  • Ediciones con ISBN en español e inglés de varios dudosos y espurios fuera de los volúmenes generales (Hiparco, Teages, Minos, Demódoco, Sísifo, Alción): solo figuran en Gredos VII y Hackett Complete Works. Localizar el volumen Loeb XII (Charmides, Alcibiades I–II, Hipparchus, Lovers, Theages, Minos, Epinomis, LCL 201) y el X (Laws I–VI, LCL 187), cuyos ISBN no aparecieron en Open Library.
  • Alción y Demódoco/Sísifo no tienen texto castellano de dominio público localizado; Alción tampoco en inglés (está en el corpus de Luciano: buscar traducción antigua de dominio público).
  • Ediciones en francés (Belles Lettres/Budé, GF Flammarion), alemán (Schleiermacher, de dominio público) e italiano: no registradas en esta versión.
  • Fechas de composición: se dan años aproximados de la cronología convencional (Kahn, Kraut); no son datos documentados. Los dudosos y espurios quedan sin año salvo Epínomis y las Cartas IV, VII y VIII.
  • Contenido de las páginas «Primer Alcibíades», «Ion», «Lisis» y demás de Wikisource en español: comprobado que existen; la de Protágoras figura «en desarrollo».
  • Traductor «Mr. Knight» de Alcibíades II y Erixias en la edición de Jowett: identificar nombre completo y fecha de muerte (Jowett solo le llama «my friend and secretary, Mr. Knight»).
  • Imagen del Codex Clarkianus: la reproducción procede de la Bodleiana vía Commons; enlazar la ficha exacta de Digital Bodleian del MS. E. D. Clarke 39 en manuscripts[].digitization_url (ahora apunta a la portada del portal). Ídem Gallica para el Parisinus graecus 1807.
  • Vídeos: año exacto de los de Michael Sugrue, Wireless Philosophy, Oxford, Canal Encuentro, TED-Ed y Fundación Juan March (no consignado). Solo tres vídeos en español de canales institucionales; buscar más (RTVE, Fundación Juan March, universidades).
  • Sin programas de afiliación verificados para ninguna de las editoriales registradas.

Recherche effectuée le 2026-10-25