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Vorsokratische Philosophie · Pythagoreismus

Pythagoras

Πυθαγόρης · Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος

um 570 v. Chr. – um 495 v. Chr.Historisch belegte Person

Griechischer Weiser, um 570 v. Chr. auf Samos geboren, der in Kroton in Süditalien eine Gemeinschaft von Schülern gründete, verbunden durch eine Lebensform, den Glauben an die Seelenwanderung und, der Überlieferung zufolge, das Studium von Zahl und Harmonie. Er hinterließ keine Schriften. Wir kennen ihn aus knappen Zeugnissen von Zeitgenossen und aus Biographien, die acht Jahrhunderte später entstanden und ihn zu einem göttlichen Menschen machten: Tatsache und Legende zu scheiden ist das erste Problem seiner Geschichte.

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Busto de Pitágoras (Museos Capitolinos)

Busto de Pitágoras (Museos Capitolinos) · Public domain

In eigenen Worten

«No, by him who gave our race the tetraktys, the fount holding the roots of ever-flowing nature.»

Juramento de los pitagóricos por Pitágoras, citado por Porfirio, Vida de Pitágoras 20 (ed. Nauck), Aecio y Sexto Empírico; los Versos de oro (47–48) contienen una variante. Es un juramento de los discípulos, no palabras de Pitágoras. Traducciones propias.

Golden Verses — Pythagoras

Zum Einstieg ein Werk

Golden Verses

Der zentrale Gedanke

Metempsychosis (transmigration of souls): It is the doctrine that can most securely be attributed to Pythagoras, because it is already attested by Xenophanes, his contemporary, and shortly after by Herodotus, Ion of Chios and Empedocles.

Biografie

5 Min. Lesezeit

Unterstützte Übersetzung aus dem spanischen Original, Durchsicht durch einen muttersprachlichen Übersetzer ausstehend.

Ein Name ohne Werk

Pythagoras hinterließ keine Schriften, oder jedenfalls erreichte keine die nächste Generation: Das erste pythagoreische Buch, von dem wir Kunde haben, ist das des Philolaos, mehr als ein halbes Jahrhundert nach seinem Tod. Was wir über ihn wissen, stammt aus drei sehr ungleichen Schichten von Zeugnissen. Die erste bilden knappe Anspielungen von Zeitgenossen oder Beinahe-Zeitgenossen – Xenophanes, Heraklit, Ion von Chios, Empedokles, Herodot –, die ihn als Weisen von außerordentlichem Wissen und als Lehrer einer Seelenlehre darstellen. Die zweite sind die Nachrichten des Aristoteles und seiner Schüler Aristoxenos und Dikaiarchos im 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr., die bereits mit widersprüchlichen Überlieferungen arbeiten. Die dritte sind die großen Biographien des Diogenes Laertios, des Porphyrios und des Iamblichos, geschrieben acht- bis neunhundert Jahre nach seinem Tod, als Pythagoras längst zu einem göttlichen Menschen geworden war.

Die Tatsache von der Legende zu scheiden, ist daher das erste Problem jeder Biographie. Walter Burkert vertrat 1962 die These, der historische Pythagoras sei vor allem ein religiöser Lehrer gewesen, eher einem Schamanen verwandt als einem Mathematiker, und die pythagoreische Wissenschaft beginne erst mit Philolaos und Archytas; Leonid Zhmud hat dagegen die Auffassung verteidigt, schon er selbst und seine ersten Anhänger hätten Mathematik betrieben. Bezeichnenderweise spricht Aristoteles fast nie von Pythagoras, sondern von den „sogenannten Pythagoreern“.

Samos

Er wurde um 570 v. Chr. auf Samos geboren, als Sohn des Mnesarchos, den Herodot und Heraklit nennen und den die spätere Überlieferung zum Siegelschneider macht. Aristoxenos berichtet, er habe die Insel mit vierzig Jahren verlassen, um der Tyrannis des Polykrates zu entgehen, was es erlaubt, seine Geburt um dieses Datum anzusetzen. Die späten Biographen schreiben ihm Lehrer zu – Pherekydes von Syros, Anaximander, Thales – sowie lange Bildungsreisen nach Ägypten, Babylon, Phönizien und sogar nach Indien. Die Reise nach Ägypten erscheint schon bei Isokrates im 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr.; die übrigen sind aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach spätere Konstruktionen, die seiner Weisheit einen orientalischen Ursprung geben wollten.

Kroton

Um 530 v. Chr. ließ er sich in Kroton nieder, einer achäischen Kolonie in Süditalien. Laut Dikaiarchos, den Porphyrios zitiert, machten sein Auftreten und seine Rede solchen Eindruck, dass der Rat der Alten ihn bat, zu den jungen Männern, zu den Kindern und zu den Frauen zu sprechen. Um ihn bildete sich eine Gemeinschaft von Männern und Frauen – unter ihnen Theano, die die Überlieferung zu seiner Gattin oder Schülerin macht –, verbunden durch eine gemeinsame Lebensform, mit Verhaltensregeln, Schweigen und, nach manchen Berichten, Gütergemeinschaft. Die Gemeinschaft gewann in Kroton und anderen Städten der Magna Graecia beträchtliches politisches Gewicht; die Überlieferung bringt sie mit dem Krieg in Verbindung, in dem Kroton 510 v. Chr. Sybaris zerstörte.

Was seine Zeitgenossen sagten

Die ältesten Zeugnisse sind ebenso knapp wie aufschlussreich. Xenophanes von Kolophon verspottet ihn in einigen Versen: Als er sah, wie ein Hund geschlagen wurde, habe Pythagoras gebeten, damit aufzuhören, denn er habe im Jaulen des Tieres die Seele eines Freundes erkannt. Heraklit erwähnt ihn zweimal mit Verachtung: als Beispiel dafür, dass Vielwisserei nicht lehrt, Verstand zu haben, und als den Mann, der mehr als alle anderen Forschung betrieb und sich daraus eine eigene Weisheit zurechtmachte, „Vielwisserei, üble Kunst“. Herodot nennt ihn „nicht den schwächsten der griechischen Weisen“ und deutet an, er habe die Lehre von der Seelenwanderung aus Ägypten übernommen. Alle stimmen in zwei Zügen überein: einem ungewöhnlichen Wissen und dem Glauben an eine Seele, die fortlebt und von einem Körper in einen anderen übergeht.

Das pythagoreische Leben

Platon sagt im Staat, Pythagoras sei geliebt worden, weil er eine Lebensweise hinterlassen habe, die man noch zu seiner Zeit die pythagoreische nannte. Diese Lebensweise wurde in akusmata weitergegeben, kurzen mündlichen Sprüchen: Was ist das Weiseste (die Zahl), was das Gerechteste (opfern), was darf man nicht tun (Bohnen essen, das Feuer mit einem Messer schüren, über eine Waage schreiten). Viele wirken wie archaische religiöse Tabus; die spätere Überlieferung las sie als Symbole. Über die Ernährung gehen die Quellen auseinander: Die einen schreiben ihm einen strengen, mit der Seelenwanderung verknüpften Vegetarismus zu; Aristoxenos behauptete, er habe Fleisch gegessen, außer dem des Pflugochsen und des Widders. Die späten Quellen teilen seine Anhänger in Akusmatiker, die den Sprüchen treu blieben, und Mathematiker, die sich der Wissenschaft widmeten – eine Einteilung, die wahrscheinlich spätere Streitigkeiten widerspiegelt.

Zahl und Harmonie

Aristoteles schreibt den Pythagoreern die These zu, die Prinzipien der Zahlen seien die Prinzipien aller Dinge, und erklärt sie mit der Entdeckung, dass die musikalischen Konsonanzen einfachen Zahlenverhältnissen entsprechen: die Oktave 2:1, die Quinte 3:2, die Quarte 4:3. Daher die Verehrung der Tetraktys, der ersten vier Zahlen, deren Summe zehn ergibt und bei der die Pythagoreer schworen, und die Vorstellung, dass die Himmelskörper eine Harmonie hervorbringen. Den Satz, der seinen Namen trägt, kannten die babylonischen Mathematiker schon mehr als tausend Jahre zuvor, und seine Zuschreibung an Pythagoras taucht erst spät auf, bei Autoren hellenistischer und römischer Zeit; welcher Teil der pythagoreischen Mathematik auf den Gründer zurückgeht, gehört zu den umstrittensten Fragen der Wissenschaftsgeschichte.

Das Ende

Gegen Ende seines Lebens brach in Kroton ein Aufstand unter Führung Kylons aus, eines Aristokraten, den Pythagoras nach Aristoxenos als Schüler abgewiesen hatte. Pythagoras zog sich nach Metapont zurück, wo er um 495 v. Chr. starb; Cicero besuchte Jahrhunderte später das Haus und den Sitz, die man ihm dort zuschrieb. Die Berichte über seinen Tod widersprechen einander: Die einen sagen, er sei beim Brand des Hauses des Milon in Kroton umgekommen; andere, seine Verfolger hätten ihn vor einem Bohnenfeld eingeholt, das er nicht betreten wollte; Dikaiarchos, er sei im Musenheiligtum von Metapont verhungert. Um die Mitte des 5. Jahrhunderts wurden die pythagoreischen Versammlungshäuser in mehreren Städten Italiens in Brand gesteckt, und die Überlebenden zerstreuten sich.

Die Legende

Seit Aristoteles waren Wunder im Umlauf: der goldene Schenkel, die gleichzeitige Anwesenheit in Kroton und Metapont, der Fluss, der ihn beim Namen grüßte. Die Neupythagoreer der Kaiserzeit und die Neuplatoniker machten ihn zu einem göttlichen Menschen, nach manchen zu einem Sohn Apollons, und schrieben ihm die Goldenen Verse und eine ganze Bibliothek apokrypher Schriften zu. Platon verdankt ihm die Unsterblichkeit der Seele und das Vertrauen in die Mathematik als Weg zum Wirklichen; Kopernikus berief sich auf die Pythagoreer, um die Bewegung der Erde zu verteidigen, und Kepler suchte die Harmonie der Himmel. Wenige Gestalten waren so einflussreich, über die man so wenig weiß.

Quellen: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro VIII, 1–50 (Pitágoras), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342). · Porfirio. Vida de Pitágoras (Πυθαγόρου βίος), c. 270–300 d. C.; texto griego de A. Nauck, Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula selecta, 2.ª ed., Teubner, Leipzig, 1886 (Wikisource en griego). Recoge fragmentos de Aristóxeno, Dicearco, Nicómaco y Antonio Diógenes. · Jámblico. Sobre la vida pitagórica (De vita Pythagorica), c. 300 d. C.; ed. L. Deubner, Teubner, Leipzig, 1937. Trad. inglesa de Thomas Taylor, Londres, 1818 (Project Gutenberg n.º 63300), y de John Dillon y Jackson Hershbell, Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1991. · Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism, trad. Edwin L. Minar Jr. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1972 (orig.: Weisheit und Wissenschaft, Hans Carl, Núremberg, 1962). · Riedweg, Christoph. Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, and Influence, trad. Steven Rendall. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2005 (orig.: Pythagoras. Leben, Lehre, Nachwirkung, C. H. Beck, Múnich, 2002).

Zeitleiste

Das Leben, Jahr für Jahr

Jeder Punkt ist ein belegtes Ereignis. Klicken Sie, um es mit Quelle und Grad der Gewissheit zu lesen.

  1. um 570 v. Chr. · 0 Jahre

    Birth

    Born on Samos, son of Mnesarchus. The date is inferred from Aristoxenus' report that he left the island at forty, under Polycrates; Wikidata records proposals between 582 and 550 BCE. Years BCE are expressed as negative numbers.

    Wahrscheinlich

  2. um 550 v. Chr.

    Journeys of study

    Isocrates (Busiris 28) is the first to mention a journey to Egypt; the late biographers add Phoenicia, Babylon, the Persian magi and India, and teachers such as Pherecydes and Thales. None of it can be verified.

    Überlieferung

  3. um 538 v. Chr.

    Tyranny of Polycrates

    Polycrates seizes power on Samos (c. 538–522 BCE); according to Aristoxenus, Pythagoras emigrates to escape his tyranny.

    Belegt

  4. um 530 v. Chr. · 40 Jahre

    Arrival in Croton

    He settles in Croton where, according to Dicaearchus, he addresses the council, the young men, the children and the women, and founds a community of disciples of both sexes.

    Wahrscheinlich

  5. 510 v. Chr.

    Destruction of Sybaris

    Croton, led by the athlete Milo, destroys Sybaris. Late sources (Diodorus, Iamblichus) give Pythagoras a role in the decision to go to war.

    Umstritten

  6. um 505 v. Chr.

    Cylon's revolt

    The aristocrat Cylon leads a revolt against the Pythagoreans. The chronology is very uncertain: some sources place it in Pythagoras' lifetime, others conflate it with the persecutions of the mid-fifth century.

    Umstritten

  7. um 495 v. Chr. · 75 Jahre

    Death

    He dies at Metapontum, according to the most accepted version; other sources have him die in Croton or Sicily. Cicero (De finibus V 4) visited the spot pointed out there as his house.

    Wahrscheinlich

  8. um 450 v. Chr.

    Burning of the Pythagorean houses

    Polybius (II 39) relates that the Pythagorean meeting-places were burnt in the cities of Magna Graecia, causing great political upheaval; the survivors scatter across Greece.

    Belegt

  9. um 420 v. Chr.

    Philolaus, the first Pythagorean book

    Philolaus of Croton writes the first Pythagorean treatise of which authentic fragments survive, on the limited, the unlimited and harmony.

    Wahrscheinlich

  10. um 388 v. Chr.

    Plato and Archytas

    Plato travels to Italy and Sicily and befriends the Pythagorean Archytas of Tarentum, mathematician and statesman; the Pythagorean imprint is visible in the Phaedo, the Gorgias and the Timaeus.

    Wahrscheinlich

  11. um 300 v. Chr.

    Iamblichus writes On the Pythagorean Life

    The Neoplatonist Iamblichus composes the longest biography of Pythagoras, as the first book of an encyclopedia of Pythagoreanism; shortly before, Porphyry had written his Life of Pythagoras.

    Belegt

  12. 1543

    Copernicus invokes the Pythagoreans

    In the preface to De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Copernicus cites the Pythagoreans Philolaus, Ecphantus and Hicetas as precedents for the Earth's motion.

    Belegt

  13. 1619

    Kepler, Harmonices mundi

    Johannes Kepler publishes The Harmony of the World, seeking the musical proportions of planetary motions in a modern reformulation of the harmony of the spheres.

    Belegt

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Golden Verses — Pythagoras

Traditionelle Zuschreibung · um 300 v. Chr.

Golden Verses

Χρυσᾶ ἔπη

Seventy-one lines of moral and religious precepts: honour the gods, the heroes and one's parents; choose the virtuous as a friend; master the belly, sleep, desire and anger; respect oneself above all; examine each night what was done during the day. The final section promises whoever perseveres knowledge of the nature of gods and men and, on leaving the body, the condition of an immortal god. The Neoplatonist Hierocles of Alexandria (5th century) wrote a commentary on it, and in the modern age it was one of the most translated Greek texts.

5 Ausgaben

Akousmata and symbola — Pythagoras

Aufgezeichnete mündliche Lehre · um 500 v. Chr.

Akousmata and symbola

ἀκούσματα / σύμβολα

According to Iamblichus they fell into three classes: what something is ("what are the isles of the blessed? The sun and the moon"), what is most such ("what is wisest? Number"), what must be done or avoided ("do not eat beans", "do not stir the fire with a knife", "do not step over a balance", "put on the right shoe first"). Many look like archaic ritual taboos; from the fourth century BCE they were interpreted as moral symbols: stirring the fire with a knife would mean provoking the anger of someone already irritated.

Nicht verfügbar Das Buch ansehen

2 Ausgaben

On the Pythagorean Life (Iamblichus) — Pythagoras

Wissenschaftliche Studie · um 300

On the Pythagorean Life (Iamblichus)

Περὶ τοῦ Πυθαγορικοῦ βίου

The first book of a ten-book work on Pythagoreanism. It narrates the birth, the journeys, the arrival in Croton and the speeches to youths, elders and women, describes life in the community—the five-year silence, the testing of candidates, friendship, diet, music as medicine for the soul—, lists the miracles, recounts Cylon's conspiracy and closes with a catalogue of Pythagoreans: 218 men and 17 women. It is the longest surviving source on Pythagoras.

5 Ausgaben

Life of Pythagoras (Porphyry) — Pythagoras

Wissenschaftliche Studie · um 280

Life of Pythagoras (Porphyry)

Πυθαγόρου βίος

It covers the origin, education, arrival in Italy, the marvels (the Daunian she-bear, the fish, the greeting of the river Caucasus, the simultaneous presence in Metapontum and Tauromenium), the teaching through symbols, Pythagorean friendship and Cylon's conspiracy, naming its sources: Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Nicomachus, Neanthes, Antonius Diogenes. Its Greek text survives almost complete.

4 Ausgaben

Zitate

Zitate, die in einem bestimmten Werk nachgewiesen sind. Jedes trägt seine Herkunft und seinen Grad an Verlässlichkeit.

Stop, do not beat it: it is the soul of a friend; I recognised it when I heard its voice.

παῦσαι μηδὲ ῥάπιζ᾽, ἐπεὶ ἦ φίλου ἀνέρος ἐστὶν ψυχή, τὴν ἔγνων φθεγξαμένης ἀίων.

WahrscheinlichJenófanes, fragmento DK 21 B 7, transmitido por Diógenes Laercio VIII 36. Son palabras que Jenófanes, contemporáneo de Pitágoras, le atribuye en tono satírico; traducciones propias.

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Apokryphe Zitate oder Zitate umstrittener Zuschreibung (4)
  • «All is number.»

    The formula appears in no ancient source as a saying of Pythagoras. It summarises Aristotle's account of the doctrine of "the so-called Pythagoreans" (Metaphysics A 5–6), according to which things are numbers or imitate numbers; the thesis probably comes from Philolaus, not from the founder.

  • «Educate the children and it will not be necessary to punish the men.»

    It circulates online and in quotation books attributed to Pythagoras with no reference to any ancient text. It does not appear in Diogenes Laertius, Porphyry, Iamblichus or the collections of Pythagorean sayings in Stobaeus.

  • «As long as man continues to be the ruthless destroyer of lower living beings, he will never know health or peace.»

    A modern quotation spread in vegetarian circles. The idea of kinship among all living beings is indeed Pythagorean (Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras 19), and Ovid puts a long plea against eating meat in Pythagoras' mouth (Metamorphoses XV 60–478), but this sentence is in no ancient text.

  • «Listen, and you will become wise; the beginning of wisdom is silence.»

    A modern variant of the discipline of silence that Iamblichus (Pythagorean Life 72) and other late biographers attribute to the Pythagorean community (the *echemythia*, a five-year silence for novices). It is not a literal quotation from any ancient source.

Letzte Worte

Widersprüchliche Fassungen

«"Better to be caught than to trample the beans, and better to be slain than to speak."»

There is no reliable testimony. Diogenes Laertius (VIII 39) reports, from unnamed sources ("some say"), that Pythagoras, fleeing the fire at Milo's house in Croton, stopped at a field of beans and said these words before his pursuers killed him. On the same page he gives other incompatible versions: Dicaearchus claims he took refuge in the temple of the Muses at Metapontum and starved to death after forty days; Heraclides Lembus, that he let himself starve at Metapontum because he no longer wished to live; Hermippus, that he died in a war between Acragas and Syracuse, again skirting a field of beans. The bean story seems built on the Pythagorean prohibition against eating them. Neither Porphyry nor Iamblichus gives him any last words.

Quelle: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro VIII, 1–50 (Pitágoras), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342).

Fragen

Was das Werk beantwortet

Zwölf große Fragen der Menschheit und was sich aus den Texten darauf antworten lässt, mit Belegen. Wir legen niemandem Worte in den Mund.

  • Was ist das Absolute? Gibt es Gott?

    The Pythagorean tradition places the principle of all things in number and harmony

    Ein unpersönliches AbsolutesAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    Pythagoras wrote nothing, and what is attributed to him about the divine reaches us in layers. Aristotle, who no longer distinguishes the master from his school, speaks of “the so-called Pythagoreans” and credits them with the thesis that the principles of numbers are the principles of all beings and that the whole heaven is harmony and number. Philolaus of Croton, the first Pythagorean with surviving fragments, makes harmony what binds the unlimited and the limiting. The late Lives by Porphyry and Iamblichus add a Pythagoras devoted to Apollo and revered as a divine being, and the oath by the tetractys shows that number was an object of cult. What can prudently be affirmed is an ordering mathematical principle, not a God who knows and loves the creature.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen
  • Wer bin ich? Gibt es ein wahres Selbst?

    An immortal soul that passes from body to body, animal ones included

    Eine sich entwickelnde SeeleAusdrücklich gesagt

    This is the doctrine that the oldest testimonies attribute to Pythagoras with greatest confidence. Xenophanes, his contemporary, mocks him by telling how, seeing a puppy being beaten, he asked them to stop because he had recognised the soul of a friend in its cries. Dicaearchus, a pupil of Aristotle, summarises according to Porphyry what he taught at Croton: that the soul is immortal, that it changes into other kinds of living beings, that what happens happens again in cycles, and that all animate beings are kin. The self is thus a soul passing through many lives; later tradition added that Pythagoras remembered his former existences.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen
  • Warum leiden wir?

    The soul atones in the body and is purified from life to life

    Karma und das Lernen der SeeleAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    No text by Pythagoras explains why we suffer, and about him there are only testimonies. The Pythagorean tradition, however, links suffering with the soul's destiny. Philolaus invokes “the ancient theologians and seers” to say that the soul is yoked to the body as a punishment and buried in it as in a tomb; transmigration, the master's best-attested doctrine, makes each life a consequence of earlier ones. Hence the Pythagorean way of life — abstinences, silence, daily review, music — conceived as purification. Pain does not appear as absurd: it is the state of a fallen soul that, with discipline, can free itself from the cycle.

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  • Was geschieht nach dem Tod?

    The immortal soul is reborn in other living beings, in recurring cycles

    Wiedergeburt nach dem KarmaAusdrücklich gesagt

    Transmigration is the oldest and best-attested doctrine attributed to Pythagoras. Xenophanes, his contemporary, already mocks it; Dicaearchus, in the fourth century BC, summarises it according to Porphyry: the soul is immortal, passes into other kinds of living beings, what has happened happens again in cycles, and nothing is absolutely new. Heraclides of Pontus adds, according to Diogenes Laertius, that Pythagoras remembered having been Aethalides, Euphorbus and others. Herodotus, without naming him, speaks of Greeks who took from Egypt the idea that the soul passes through all animals before returning to a human body. Death is not an end but a step within a cycle.

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  • Wie erlangt man Befreiung oder Erlösung?

    A way of life: silence, abstinences, music, study and daily review

    Durch disziplinierte ÜbungAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    Plato, in the Republic, remembers Pythagoras not for his science but for having bequeathed to his followers a way of life that still in his day set them apart. The much later Lives by Porphyry and Iamblichus describe that regime: years of silence for novices, dietary precepts, goods held in common, music to order the soul, study of mathematics and astronomy, and an examination of conscience each night that the Golden Verses, a late poem, formulate in three questions. If transmigration is the problem, the methodical purification of body and soul is the way. It is neither grace nor a single insight, but a sustained discipline.

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  • Braucht es einen Lehrer?

    A brotherhood with common goods, degrees of initiation and the master's word

    Gemeinschaft und TraditionAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    Tradition presents Pythagoras as the founder of a community rather than as a teacher of scattered disciples. According to Timaeus, cited by Diogenes Laertius, he was the first to say that friends hold all things in common, and his followers pooled their goods. The late Lives describe a period of testing and silence, and two grades of members: the “acousmatics”, who received precepts without demonstration, and the “mathematicians”, who studied their reasons. The founder's authority was immense: the formula “he said it” settled disputes, according to Cicero, and the Pythagoreans swore by him. The way is travelled within the community, with its precepts, its common life and its reserved teaching.

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  • Ist die Welt wirklich?

    A kosmos: a beautiful order governed by number and harmony

    Natürliche Ordnung im WandelAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    Tradition credits Pythagoras with being the first to call the whole universe “kosmos”, at once order and adornment, and Aristotle attributes to the Pythagoreans the idea that the whole heaven is harmony and number. The stories about the harmony of the spheres and the musical ratios found in the intervals of the octave, fifth and fourth belong to the same intuition: the world is real and ordered by numerical relations that the mind can discover. Philolaus, the best-documented Pythagorean, holds that everything known has number and that without it nothing could be thought or known. The world is not illusion: it is an order to be understood and attuned to.

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  • Was ist Liebe?

    Among friends all is common: a friendship of all with all

    Geordnetes WohlwollenAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    The key word of Pythagoreanism is not erotic love but friendship. Timaeus of Tauromenium, cited by Diogenes Laertius, credits Pythagoras with being the first to say that among friends all is common and that friendship is equality. Iamblichus, in his Pythagorean Life, describes a friendship of all with all: of gods with humans, of soul with body, of citizens with one another, of humans with animals. Anecdotes about loyalty among Pythagoreans, such as that of Damon and Phintias, became proverbial. The kinship of all living beings, a consequence of transmigration, extends that goodwill beyond the human, though always ordered by measure and harmony.

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  • Sind wir frei, oder ist alles vorherbestimmt?

    The sources attribute to him no doctrine on freedom

    Nicht geäußert

    None of the ancient testimonies about Pythagoras addresses the question of freedom and determinism, which was only formulated precisely in the Hellenistic period. What is attributed to him points in different directions without resolving them. Dicaearchus, according to Porphyry, has him say that what happens happens again in cycles and that nothing is absolutely new, which suggests a recurring order; transmigration and the regime of purification, by contrast, presuppose that conduct has consequences for the soul's destiny. Aristoxenus, a pupil of Aristotle, transmitted Pythagorean maxims about the part fortune plays in life, but without a theory of the will. Attributing a position to him would force the sources.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen
  • Wozu meditieren oder beten?

    Precepts, silence, music and daily review: life as rite

    Ritual und SelbstkultivierungAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    The Pythagorean tradition does not separate prayer from conduct. The “acusmata”, short orally transmitted precepts, regulated everyday and ritual gestures: which foot to enter the temple with, what not to eat, how to sacrifice, not to speak of Pythagorean matters without light. The Lives by Iamblichus and Porphyry describe days that began with solitary walks in quiet places to calm the soul, continued with study and ended with a review of the day; music, with chosen songs and melodies, served to purify and balance the passions. The late Golden Verses ask one not to sleep without having gone over the day's actions three times. Practice is rite, study and daily conduct.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen
  • Kann die Vernunft das Letzte erkennen?

    A doctrine reserved for initiates, in which number is the wisest thing

    Esoterisches WissenAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    The Pythagorean tradition joins two traits that seldom go together: mathematical inquiry and secrecy. According to the acusma transmitted by Iamblichus, the wisest thing is number, and the school was held to be the cradle of Greek arithmetic, harmonics and astronomy. But that teaching was not offered to everyone: the Lives describe admission tests, years of silence and a distinction between those who received the precepts without demonstration and those who gained access to their reasons. The legend of Hippasus, punished for divulging a mathematical secret, illustrates that reserve. Reason can know the ultimate, but knowledge is passed on within a school, to those prepared to receive it.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen
  • Sich von der Welt zurückziehen oder sie verwandeln?

    A community that came to govern cities of Magna Graecia

    Die Gesellschaft ordnenAus der Lehre abgeleitet

    The Pythagoreans did not withdraw from the world: their community had considerable political weight in southern Italy. According to the sources, Pythagoras arrived at Croton and delivered speeches to the young men, the magistrates, the children and the women, and Diogenes Laertius says he gave laws to the Greeks of Italy. His followers came to dominate the councils of several cities, until a revolt, led according to tradition by one Cylon, burned the house where they met and dispersed the school. The Pythagorean life combined a regime of personal purification with the aim of ordering the city according to harmony and friendship. Wisdom was to be reflected in government.

    Diese Frage mit anderen Meistern vergleichen

Anekdoten und Erzählungen

Anekdoten und Erzählungen

Belegts. VI a. C.

The beaten dog

Xenophanes of Colophon, a wandering poet and philosopher, a slightly younger contemporary of Pythagoras, devoted some mocking lines to his doctrine. He relates that once Pythagoras was passing a puppy that was being beaten, took pity on it and said: "Stop, do not beat it: it is the soul of a friend; I recognised it when I heard its voice." The lines ridicule the belief in transmigration—that a human soul can be reborn in an animal—but, precisely because of their hostility, they are the oldest proof that Pythagoras already taught it in his lifetime. Diogenes Laertius, who preserves the fragment, introduces it as evidence that Pythagoras "was at one time one person and at another time another".

Herkunft der Erzählung: Xenophanes, DK 21 B 7, in Diogenes Laertius VIII 36. It is the oldest contemporary testimony about Pythagoras; the episode may be a satirical invention, but the doctrine it satirises is genuine.

Quelle: Diels, Hermann y Kranz, Walther. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6.ª ed., Weidmann, Berlín, 1951–1952: cap. 14 (Pitágoras), 21 B 7 (Jenófanes), 22 B 40 y B 129 (Heráclito), 31 B 129 (Empédocles), 36 B 4 (Ion de Quíos).

Hagiographische Erzählungs. VI a. C. (tradicional)

The golden thigh

Among the marvels antiquity told of Pythagoras, the most famous is his golden thigh. At games in Olympia, or according to others in the theatre, he stood up and let those present see that one of his thighs was of gold. To the Hyperborean priest Abaris, who had taken him for the Hyperborean Apollo, he is said to have shown it as confirmation. It was also told that a river—the Caucasus according to Porphyry, the Nessus according to Iamblichus—greeted him aloud—"Hail, Pythagoras!"—as he crossed it, that he was seen on the same day and at the same hour in Croton and in Metapontum, and that he foretold the death of a man arriving on a ship. These stories placed Pythagoras between men and gods: the people of Croton, according to Aristotle, called him the Hyperborean Apollo.

Herkunft der Erzählung: Aristotle, fragments of On the Pythagoreans (fr. 191 Rose), transmitted by Aelian (Varia Historia II 26 and IV 17) and Apollonius; expanded in Porphyry (VP 27–28) and Iamblichus (VP 134–136, 140). That Aristotle recorded them shows they were already circulating in the fourth century BCE; Burkert interprets them as traits of a shamanic type of sage.

Quelle: Aristóteles. Metafísica A 5, 985b23–986b8, y fragmentos de Sobre los pitagóricos (ed. W. D. Ross, Fragmenta selecta, Oxford, 1955). Trad. inglesa de W. D. Ross (1908; Internet Classics Archive, MIT); trad. española de Patricio de Azcárate (Madrid, 1875).

Nicht überprüfbars. VI a. C. (tradicional)

The blacksmith's hammers

Nicomachus of Gerasa relates that Pythagoras was looking for an instrument to measure sounds as precisely as sight is aided by compass or ruler. Passing a smithy he heard the hammers striking the iron produce concords of octave, fifth and fourth. He went in, found that the difference depended on the weight of the hammers, which stood in the ratios 12, 9, 8 and 6, and back home reproduced the experiment by hanging weights from equal strings. The story, repeated throughout the Middle Ages through Boethius, is physically false: the pitch of a hammer is not proportional to its weight, and a string's tension must be quadrupled, not doubled, to rise an octave. The numerical ratios of the concords, however, are correct and can be verified in the length of a string.

Herkunft der Erzählung: Nicomachus of Gerasa, Manual of Harmonics 6 (2nd century CE), repeated by Iamblichus (VP 115–119) and Boethius (De institutione musica I 10–11). There is no source earlier than Nicomachus; the story is an aetiological legend about the discovery of musical ratios, which were probably found with the monochord.

Quelle: Nicómaco de Gerasa. Manual de armónica (Harmonikon encheiridion) 6, s. II d. C.; trad. inglesa de Flora R. Levin, The Manual of Harmonics of Nicomachus the Pythagorean, Phanes Press, Grand Rapids, 1994.

Umstrittens. VI a. C. (tradicional)

The word "philosopher"

According to Heraclides of Pontus, a pupil of Plato, the tyrant Leon of Phlius was struck by Pythagoras' eloquence and asked him what art he relied on. Pythagoras replied that he knew no art: he was a philosopher. Since the word was new, he explained that human life resembles the great fair held with the Olympic games: some come to compete for glory, others to buy and sell for profit, and a few, the noblest, come only to watch. In the same way, among men, some serve glory and others money, but the rarest devote themselves to contemplating the nature of things: these are the lovers of wisdom.

Herkunft der Erzählung: Cicero, Tusculan Disputations V 3.8–10, and Diogenes Laertius I 12 and VIII 8, from a lost dialogue by Heraclides of Pontus (4th century BCE). Most scholars regard the anecdote as a projection of the Platonic Academy's contemplative ideal; the word "philosopher" appears earlier in Heraclitus, if fragment DK 22 B 35 is genuine.

Quelle: Cicerón. Disputaciones tusculanas V 3.8–10 (Pitágoras y la palabra «filósofo», según Heráclides Póntico) y Del supremo bien y del supremo mal (De finibus) V 2.4 (la casa de Metaponto), s. I a. C.

Hagiographische Erzählungc. 530 a. C. (tradicional)

The fishes of Croton

One day, Porphyry relates, Pythagoras approached some fishermen hauling a heavily laden net from the sea and told them how many fish they had caught. The fishermen, incredulous, promised to do whatever he asked if he was right. They counted the fish one by one: the number was exact. Pythagoras then asked them to return all the fish alive to the sea, and none had died during the count, although they had been out of the water. He paid the fishermen the price of the catch and went on his way. Iamblichus adds that the fishermen spread the news through Croton. Salvator Rosa painted the scene in 1662.

Herkunft der Erzählung: Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras 25, and Iamblichus, Pythagorean Life 36. It belongs to the miracle repertoire of the Neopythagorean Pythagoras; it has no basis in sources earlier than the imperial period.

Quelle: Porfirio. Vida de Pitágoras (Πυθαγόρου βίος), c. 270–300 d. C.; texto griego de A. Nauck, Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula selecta, 2.ª ed., Teubner, Leipzig, 1886 (Wikisource en griego). Recoge fragmentos de Aristóxeno, Dicearco, Nicómaco y Antonio Diógenes.

Umstrittens. VI a. C. (tradicional)

The descent to Hades

The biographer Hermippus of Smyrna, in the third century BCE, told a malicious story. In Italy Pythagoras had an underground chamber built and asked his mother to note on a tablet everything that happened, with its date, and send it down to him. After some time he came out, thin and wasted, appeared in the assembly and said he had returned from Hades; then he recited everything that had happened during his absence. His hearers, moved, wept, took him for a divine being and entrusted their wives to him to be taught. The anecdote aims to unmask Pythagoras' religious claims as a fraud, but it echoes a real tradition: that of a journey to the beyond, like those told of Orpheus or the Thracian Zalmoxis. Salvator Rosa painted it in 1662.

Herkunft der Erzählung: Hermippus of Smyrna, in Diogenes Laertius VIII 41. Herodotus (IV 95) tells a very similar story of the Thracian Zalmoxis, whom he makes a slave of Pythagoras; Burkert sees in both the echo of rituals of death and return.

Quelle: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro VIII, 1–50 (Pitágoras), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342).

Lehren

Lehren

Die Begriffe, die das Denken gliedern, in ihrem Zusammenhang erklärt.

Metempsychosis (transmigration of souls)metempsicosis
It is the doctrine that can most securely be attributed to Pythagoras, because it is already attested by Xenophanes, his contemporary, and shortly after by Herodotus, Ion of Chios and Empedocles. According to Dicaearchus' summary preserved by Porphyry, Pythagoras taught that the soul is immortal, that it passes into other kinds of living beings, that what has happened happens again in cycles and that all animate beings are kin. From this derive the abstention from certain foods and the idea of a purified life that frees the soul from the cycle. Tradition credited him with remembering his previous lives: he had been Aethalides, son of Hermes, the Trojan Euphorbus, Hermotimus and the fisherman Pyrrhus. Herodotus maintains that the Greeks took the doctrine from Egypt, which Egyptologists deny; others have thought of Thracian or Indian influences. Through Plato the doctrine passed into the Phaedo, the Republic and the Phaedrus.

A religious doctrine of the soul shared with Orphism and with Empedocles.

Quelle: Porfirio. Vida de Pitágoras (Πυθαγόρου βίος), c. 270–300 d. C.; texto griego de A. Nauck, Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula selecta, 2.ª ed., Teubner, Leipzig, 1886 (Wikisource en griego). Recoge fragmentos de Aristóxeno, Dicearco, Nicómaco y Antonio Diógenes.

The Pythagorean way of life (bios pythagoreios)vida-pitagorica
Plato (Republic 600a–b) says that Pythagoras was loved above all for having bequeathed a way of life, and this is perhaps the key to his influence. The Croton community was governed by rules: a period of probation and silence for candidates, daily memorisation, examination of conscience, friendship understood as community of goods ("friends have all things in common"), music as medicine for the soul, food restrictions—beans, certain fish, animal hearts—and purity rites. Men and women took part, something exceptional in archaic Greece. The late sources distinguish between acusmatici, who followed the oral precepts, and mathematici, devoted to science; the distinction probably reflects the split of the movement after the founder's death. The model influenced Plato's Academy, later philosophical schools and, through Neoplatonism, monasticism.

A communal and religious way of life in archaic Magna Graecia, idealised by the Neoplatonic biographers.

Quelle: Platón. República X, 600a–b; trad. Benjamin Jowett, 1892 (Project Gutenberg n.º 1497).

Harmony and numberarmonia-y-numero
Aristotle ascribes to the Pythagoreans the conviction that the principles of numbers are the principles of all beings, and links it to the discovery that musical concords are expressed in ratios of small whole numbers: the octave 2:1, the fifth 3:2, the fourth 4:3, verifiable in the length of a string. If something as immaterial as the beauty of a chord obeys number, number might be the structure of everything. Philolaus speaks of a cosmos made of the unlimited and the limiting, fitted together by a harmony; *harmonia* in Greek was the joining of a ship's timbers. The extension of the idea to the heavens—the planets would produce sounds according to their distances, the "harmony of the spheres"—is Pythagorean but perhaps later than the founder; Aristotle criticises it in On the Heavens and Kepler reformulated it in 1619. How much comes from Pythagoras himself is disputed: Burkert attributes it to Philolaus; Zhmud, to the first Pythagoreans.

The core of the Pythagorean scientific tradition and of its influence on Plato (Timaeus) and modern cosmology.

Quelle: Aristóteles. Metafísica A 5, 985b23–986b8, y fragmentos de Sobre los pitagóricos (ed. W. D. Ross, Fragmenta selecta, Oxford, 1955). Trad. inglesa de W. D. Ross (1908; Internet Classics Archive, MIT); trad. española de Patricio de Azcárate (Madrid, 1875).

The tetraktystetraktys
The *tetraktys* ("fourness") is the triangular figure formed by ten dots in rows of one, two, three and four: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10. It contains the ratios of the fundamental musical concords (2:1, 3:2, 4:3) and adds up to the number the Pythagoreans held perfect. The Pythagoreans swore by Pythagoras calling him "the one who gave our race the tetraktys, the fount holding the roots of ever-flowing nature", and an akousma identified it with "the oracle at Delphi" and "the harmony in which the Sirens sing". Its antiquity is debated, but the oath links it to the founder. The Neopythagorean tradition multiplied its interpretations—the four elements, the four geometrical dimensions from point to solid—, and the figure reappears in Kabbalah and Renaissance Hermeticism.

A sacred symbol of Pythagoreanism, the object of an oath.

Quelle: Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism, trad. Edwin L. Minar Jr. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1972 (orig.: Weisheit und Wissenschaft, Hans Carl, Núremberg, 1962).

The "Pythagorean theorem"teorema-de-pitagoras
In a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides. The relation was known long before Pythagoras: the Babylonian tablet Plimpton 322 (c. 1800 BCE) lists triples of numbers satisfying it, and Indian and Chinese texts use it independently. The attribution to Pythagoras is late: it appears in an epigram by one Apollodorus the calculator, quoted by Diogenes Laertius (VIII 12), according to which Pythagoras sacrificed oxen upon discovering it—an anecdote incompatible with the Pythagorean rejection of blood sacrifice—, and in Plutarch, Vitruvius and Proclus. No ancient source describes a proof by Pythagoras; the first surviving one is Euclid's (Elements I 47), around 300 BCE. That the theorem bears his name shows how tradition credited him with the achievements of the school.

A traditional, undocumented attribution of a much older mathematical result.

Quelle: Robson, Eleanor. «Words and Pictures: New Light on Plimpton 322». The American Mathematical Monthly, 109 (2), 2002, pp. 105–120 (la tablilla babilónica con ternas pitagóricas, c. 1800 a. C.); y Proclo, Comentario al primer libro de los Elementos de Euclides, 426 (la atribución del teorema).

Acusmatici and mathematiciakousmatikoi-mathematikoi
The late sources, probably drawing on Aristotle, divide Pythagoras' followers into two groups. The acusmatici ("hearers") preserved the oral maxims and the rules of life without asking for explanations; the mathematici ("learners") devoted themselves to research and gave reasons for the precepts. Each group accused the other of departing from the master: the acusmatici denied that the mathematici were genuine Pythagoreans, while the mathematici recognised the acusmatici as Pythagoreans but considered themselves truer ones. Iamblichus attributes the split to a dispute over Hippasus of Metapontum, whom legend has drowned at sea for divulging a mathematical secret—according to some, incommensurability. Historians read in this division the split of Pythagoreanism into a religious current and a scientific one.

The division of Pythagoreanism after the founder, transmitted by Iamblichus (VP 81–89; On General Mathematical Science 76).

Quelle: Huffman, Carl. «Pythagoreanism». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta; primera publicación 2006, revisión sustancial del 5 de marzo de 2024.

Videos

Videos

Aufnahmen, Gespräche und Dokumentarfilme. Die Videos werden von YouTube wiedergegeben; sie werden nicht hier gespeichert.

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Galerie

Galerie

Bilder mit geprüfter Lizenz. Jedes bewahrt seine Urheberschaft und seinen Herkunftsnachweis.

Beziehungen

Beziehungen

Einflüsse, Schülerschaften und Verwandtschaften. Die belegte Beziehung wird von der durch Analyse ermittelten Ähnlichkeit unterschieden.

  • Beeinflusste

    Plotinus

    Neoplatonism, through Porphyry and Iamblichus, pupils of his school, made Pythagoras the founder of true philosophy.

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Schüler von

    Ferécides de Siros

    Ancient tradition (Aristoxenus, Diogenes Laertius VIII 2) makes Pythagoras a pupil of Pherecydes and says he nursed him in his last illness; it cannot be verified.

    Durch Analyse ermittelte Ähnlichkeit

  • Zeitgenosse von

    Jenófanes de Colofón

    A slightly younger contemporary; he mocked his doctrine of transmigration in verse (DK 21 B 7).

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Zeitgenosse von

    Heraclitus

    He names him twice with contempt (DK 22 B 40 and B 129), as an example of much learning without understanding.

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Beeinflusste

    Empedocles

    He shared the doctrine of transmigration; his praise of a man of superhuman knowledge (DK 31 B 129) referred, according to Timaeus and Porphyry, to Pythagoras.

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Beeinflusste

    Filolao de Crotona

    A Pythagorean of the later fifth century BCE, author of the first Pythagorean book, surviving in fragments.

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Beeinflusste

    Plato

    Aristotle (Metaphysics A 6) says Plato's philosophy followed the Pythagoreans in most respects; Plato associated with Archytas of Tarentum and praises the Pythagorean life in the Republic (600a–b).

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Beeinflusste

    Aristotle

    He wrote a lost treatise On the Pythagoreans and discussed their doctrine of number in the Metaphysics.

    Belegte Beziehung

  • Verwandte Gedanken mit

    Socrates

    The Socrates of the Phaedo, talking with pupils of the Pythagorean Philolaus, defends the immortality of the soul and philosophy as purification.

    Durch Analyse ermittelte Ähnlichkeit

  • Verwandte Gedanken mit

    Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha

    Approximate contemporaries who taught rebirth and a discipline of life to escape it; there is no documented historical link, despite ancient speculation about Pythagoras travelling to India.

    Durch Analyse ermittelte Ähnlichkeit

Quellen

Quellen

Für diesen Eintrag herangezogene Bibliografie und Kataloge.

  1. Wikidata, entidad Q10261 «Pythagoras» (209 enlaces entre wikis; P31=Q5). Registra fechas de nacimiento entre 582 y 550 a. C. y de muerte entre 500 y 490 a. C.; lugar de muerte Metaponto.
  2. Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres, libro VIII, 1–50 (Pitágoras), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342).
  3. Porfirio. Vida de Pitágoras (Πυθαγόρου βίος), c. 270–300 d. C.; texto griego de A. Nauck, Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula selecta, 2.ª ed., Teubner, Leipzig, 1886 (Wikisource en griego). Recoge fragmentos de Aristóxeno, Dicearco, Nicómaco y Antonio Diógenes.
  4. Jámblico. Sobre la vida pitagórica (De vita Pythagorica), c. 300 d. C.; ed. L. Deubner, Teubner, Leipzig, 1937. Trad. inglesa de Thomas Taylor, Londres, 1818 (Project Gutenberg n.º 63300), y de John Dillon y Jackson Hershbell, Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1991.
  5. Huffman, Carl. «Pythagoras». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta; primera publicación 2005, revisión sustancial del 5 de febrero de 2024.
  6. Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism, trad. Edwin L. Minar Jr. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1972 (orig.: Weisheit und Wissenschaft, Hans Carl, Núremberg, 1962).
  7. Riedweg, Christoph. Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, and Influence, trad. Steven Rendall. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2005 (orig.: Pythagoras. Leben, Lehre, Nachwirkung, C. H. Beck, Múnich, 2002).
  8. Kahn, Charles H. Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History. Hackett, Indianápolis, 2001.
  9. Kirk, G. S., Raven, J. E. y Schofield, M. The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts, 2.ª ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983, cap. VII (trad. esp. Los filósofos presocráticos, Gredos).
  10. Diels, Hermann y Kranz, Walther. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6.ª ed., Weidmann, Berlín, 1951–1952: cap. 14 (Pitágoras), 21 B 7 (Jenófanes), 22 B 40 y B 129 (Heráclito), 31 B 129 (Empédocles), 36 B 4 (Ion de Quíos).
  11. Heródoto. Historias II 81, II 123 y IV 95, s. V a. C. Trad. inglesa de A. D. Godley (Loeb, 1920); texto en Perseus Digital Library.
  12. Aristóteles. Metafísica A 5, 985b23–986b8, y fragmentos de Sobre los pitagóricos (ed. W. D. Ross, Fragmenta selecta, Oxford, 1955). Trad. inglesa de W. D. Ross (1908; Internet Classics Archive, MIT); trad. española de Patricio de Azcárate (Madrid, 1875).
  13. Thom, Johan C. The Pythagorean Golden Verses: With Introduction and Commentary. E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1995 (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 123). ISBN 9789004101050.
  14. Zhmud, Leonid. Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans, trad. Kevin Windle y Rosh Ireland. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012.
  15. Huffman, Carl. «Pythagoreanism». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta; primera publicación 2006, revisión sustancial del 5 de marzo de 2024.
  16. «Pythagoras», Wikipedia en inglés, y «Pitágoras», Wikipedia en español (consultadas para contrastar datos y bibliografía; texto propio).
  17. Hernández de la Fuente, David (ed. y trad.). Vidas de Pitágoras. Atalanta, Vilaür, 2011 (Diógenes Laercio, Porfirio, Jámblico, Focio y otros testimonios). ISBN 9788493846664.
  18. Nicómaco de Gerasa. Manual de armónica (Harmonikon encheiridion) 6, s. II d. C.; trad. inglesa de Flora R. Levin, The Manual of Harmonics of Nicomachus the Pythagorean, Phanes Press, Grand Rapids, 1994.
  19. Cicerón. Disputaciones tusculanas V 3.8–10 (Pitágoras y la palabra «filósofo», según Heráclides Póntico) y Del supremo bien y del supremo mal (De finibus) V 2.4 (la casa de Metaponto), s. I a. C.
  20. Platón. República X, 600a–b; trad. Benjamin Jowett, 1892 (Project Gutenberg n.º 1497).
  21. Polibio. Historias II 39, s. II a. C. Trad. inglesa de W. R. Paton (Loeb, 1922).
  22. Robson, Eleanor. «Words and Pictures: New Light on Plimpton 322». The American Mathematical Monthly, 109 (2), 2002, pp. 105–120 (la tablilla babilónica con ternas pitagóricas, c. 1800 a. C.); y Proclo, Comentario al primer libro de los Elementos de Euclides, 426 (la atribución del teorema).
  23. Open Library (Internet Archive): ediciones de Jámblico, Porfirio, Diógenes Laercio, los Versos de oro y estudios sobre Pitágoras verificadas por ISBN.
  24. Internet Archive: Sentencias de Teognis, de Phocylides, de Pitágoras y de otros sabios de la Grecia, trad. Enrique Ataide y Portugal, Oficina de Aznar, Madrid, 1802 (ejemplar de la Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla); The Golden Verses of Pythagoras, trad. Nicholas Rowe, 1732.
Rechteinhaber
Textos antiguos en dominio público; cada traducción y edición crítica pertenece a su traductor o editorial

Bestätigung ausstehend

Was dieser Eintrag noch nicht klären konnte. Wir sagen es lieber, als es aufzufüllen.

  • Fechas: nacimiento c. 570 a. C. y muerte c. 495 a. C. son estimaciones a partir de Aristóxeno y Apolodoro; Wikidata recoge propuestas entre 582 y 550 (nacimiento) y entre 500 y 490 (muerte). El lugar de la muerte es contradictorio en las fuentes.
  • Historicidad: se ha marcado «documented» porque su existencia está atestiguada por contemporáneos (Jenófanes, Heráclito); casi toda la biografía, en cambio, es tradición o leyenda, y así se indica hito a hito en la cronología.
  • Manuscritos: no se ha verificado en esta sesión la tradición manuscrita de Jámblico, Porfirio ni los Versos de oro (signaturas y digitalizaciones); lista vacía.
  • Traducciones españolas de dominio público de Jámblico, Porfirio y del libro VIII de Diógenes Laercio (Ortiz y Sanz, 1792): no localizadas con URL estable; en Wikisource solo está transcrito el tomo I de Ortiz y Sanz.
  • Los «Versos de oro» de Wikisource en español no indican traductor ni fecha; no se han incluido por no poder asegurar su dominio público.
  • Edición española con ISBN de los Versos de oro: no verificada en Open Library.
  • Programas de afiliación: ninguno verificado (Gredos, Atalanta, Phanes, Brill). Lista vacía.
  • Año de los vídeos: es el de la grabación cuando la descripción lo indica y, si no, el de publicación en YouTube.

Recherchiert am 2026-10-25