Patañjali

Che cos'è l'Assoluto? Dio esiste?

Ishvara is a special purusha, not a creator; liberation is isolation

Nessun Dio creatoreLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras start from Samkhya dualism: there are pure consciousnesses (purusha) and a nature (prakriti) that nobody created. Within that frame Patanjali introduces Ishvara in I.23–26 as a special purusha, untouched by the afflictions, by karma and its fruits, the seed of omniscience, teacher even of the ancients and designated by the syllable OM. But Ishvara does not create the world nor is he the ground from which souls proceed, and surrender to him is presented as one path among others: sutra I.23 begins with an ‘or’. The goal, kaivalya, is not union with God but the isolation of consciousness, which rests in its own form. Classical yoga thus admits a Lord worthy of devotion without making either the cosmos or liberation depend on him.

Chi sono io? Esiste un vero sé?

I am the seer: pure consciousness, distinct from the mind it observes

Il Sé è l'AssolutoLo dice espressamente

For the Yoga Sutras the true self is purusha, the seer (drashtri): pure consciousness that does not change, does not act and does not mix with the contents of the mind. What we ordinarily call the self is a confusion: the sense of ‘I am’ (asmita), one of the five afflictions, consists in identifying the power that sees with the instrument through which it sees (II.6). The mind (citta) belongs to nature and is in itself unconscious; it only seems conscious because it reflects purusha. When its movements cease, the seer rests in its own form (I.3). That rest is the goal of yoga and Patanjali’s answer to the question: I am the witness, not the witnessed.

Perché soffriamo?

The root of pain is avidya: confusing the seer with the seen

L'ignoranza di ciò che siamoLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras offer one of the most precise aetiologies of suffering in ancient India. There are five afflictions (kleshas): ignorance, sense of self, attachment, aversion and clinging to life (II.3). Ignorance is the field of the others (II.4) and consists in taking the impermanent, impure, painful and not-self for permanent, pure, pleasant and self (II.5). For the discerning, everything is painful, because of change, anxiety and the impressions it leaves (II.15). But future pain can be avoided (II.16), and its cause is the conjunction of seer and seen (II.17), whose origin is ignorance (II.24). When ignorance ceases through discernment, that conjunction ceases too: that is isolation (kaivalya).

Che cosa accade dopo la morte?

The store of karma ripens as birth, lifespan and experience

Rinascita secondo il karmaLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras presuppose rebirth and explain it with technical precision. The store of karma (karmashaya), rooted in the afflictions, is experienced in visible and invisible births (II.12); while the root exists, it ripens into three fruits: the type of birth, the length of life and the experience of pleasure or pain (II.13). Among the afflictions is clinging to life (abhinivesha), present even in the wise (II.9), which Vyasa interprets as the trace of previous deaths. Latent impressions (vasanas) persist through lives (IV.8–10). Only when discernment burns the seeds of the afflictions does the cycle cease, and consciousness attains isolation.

Come si raggiunge la liberazione o la salvezza?

Constant practice and detachment: the eight limbs of yoga

Con una pratica disciplinataLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras are above all a manual of practice. The stilling of the mind’s movements is achieved through practice (abhyasa) and detachment (vairagya) (I.12), and practice becomes firm when cultivated for a long time, without interruption and with devotion (I.14). The second book sets out the eight limbs: ethical restraints (non-harming, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, non-possession), observances, posture, regulation of breath, withdrawal of the senses, concentration, meditation and absorption (II.29). Surrender to Ishvara is also offered as a path (I.23), but within a programme of discipline. The fruit is discernment between consciousness and nature, which leads to isolation.

Serve un maestro?

He names only Ishvara, as teacher of the ancients

Non si è pronunciato

The Yoga Sutras do not deal with the relationship between human master and disciple. The only mention of a teacher is theological: Ishvara, unlimited by time, is the guru even of the ancients (I.26). The text presupposes, without saying so, the context of oral transmission in classical India, in which a sutra was studied with a teacher’s explanation; its very form, aphorisms almost unintelligible without commentary, requires it. Among the observances is study (svadhyaya), which Vyasa’s commentary understands as recitation and study of texts of liberation. But Patanjali does not say whether there is a path without a human teacher; anyone wishing to attribute a doctrine of the guru to him must look for it in later tradition.

Il mondo è reale?

Nature is real and changing, and exists for the seer

Un ordine naturale in trasformazioneLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras are realist: the seen, nature (prakriti) made up of the three qualities (gunas), truly exists and undergoes constant transformation. Its purpose is the experience and liberation of the seer (II.18): nature unfolds for the sake of purusha. When a consciousness is freed, the seen ceases to exist for it, but does not disappear, because it remains common to others (II.22). In the fourth book Patanjali argues against those who reduce objects to mind: the same object is perceived differently by different minds, so it does not depend on a single mind (IV.15–16). The world is not an illusion but a real process to be understood in order to disengage from it.

Che cos'è l'amore?

Friendliness, compassion, joy and equanimity clear the mind

Compassione senza limitiLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras do not treat love as a theme, but they propose cultivating four attitudes towards others: friendliness to the happy, compassion to those who suffer, gladness at the virtuous and equanimity towards wrongdoers. Through them, says sutra I.33, the mind becomes clear and serene. These are the same four abodes known to Buddhism. The first ethical restraint, non-harming (ahimsa), has an effect described in sutra II.35: in the presence of one firmly established in it, hostility ceases. Attachment (raga), by contrast, is listed among the afflictions (II.7). The love that counts for Patanjali is therefore a benevolence without attachment.

Siamo liberi o è tutto determinato?

Impressions condition, but future pain can be avoided

Karma e sceltaLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras describe in detail how the past conditions the present: actions leave impressions (samskaras) and latent tendencies (vasanas) that ripen into birth, lifespan and experience (II.13), and persist even when separated by time, place or birth (IV.9). But the whole system presupposes that this conditioning can be broken. Pain not yet come can be avoided (II.16), constant practice creates new impressions that counteract the old, and discernment burns the seeds of the afflictions until they no longer sprout. The yogi’s karma, says IV.7, is neither white nor black. Freedom is the goal, and practice the means of winning it.

Perché meditare o pregare?

Concentration, meditation and absorption until the seer is discerned

Vedere la realtà così com'èLo dice espressamente

For the Yoga Sutras meditation is the heart of the method. The last three limbs of yoga, concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and absorption (samadhi), together form samyama (III.1–4). Samadhi has degrees: with and without an object as support, with and without discursive thought (I.17–18, I.42–51). Its fruit is truth-bearing wisdom (I.48) and, above all, discernment (viveka-khyati) between pure consciousness and nature, which is the means of removing ignorance (II.26). Meditation does not serve to obtain pleasant states, nor even the powers listed in the third book, which it regards as obstacles: it serves to see exactly what the seer is and what it is not.

Può la ragione conoscere l'ultimo?

Perception, inference and testimony are movements of the mind

L'ultimo è al di là della menteLo dice espressamente

The Yoga Sutras recognise three valid means of knowledge: perception, inference and reliable testimony or scripture (I.7). But they classify them among the movements of the mind (vrittis) that yoga sets out to still (I.6). Above them they place a wisdom that arises in the purest absorption, truth-bearing (ritambhara prajna), whose object differs from that of inference and testimony because it concerns the particular rather than the general (I.48–49). The supreme knowledge is discernment, culminating in an omniscience born of discrimination (III.54). Reason and scripture are valid in their domain, but the ultimate is known only when the mind is stilled.

Ritirarsi dal mondo o trasformarlo?

Detachment, withdrawal of the senses and final isolation

Ritirarsi per trovareSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

The Yoga Sutras do not speak of society or politics, nor do they expressly prescribe leaving family life. But their logic is one of withdrawal: detachment (vairagya) is, together with practice, the fundamental means (I.12–16); withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara) draws the mind away from its objects (II.54); and the goal is called kaivalya, isolation, the definitive separation of consciousness from nature. The ethical rules (yamas), such as non-harming or non-possession, have a social reach, but are presented as personal disciplines and, when observed without exception of place, time or circumstance, as a great vow (II.31). Classical yoga looks inward, not towards transforming the world.