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Parmenides

Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης

نحو 515 ق.م – ?شخصية موثّقة تاريخيًا

فيلسوف من إيليا في اليونان الكبرى (وُلد نحو 515 ق.م)، صاحب قصيدة على البحر السداسي بقي منها نحو مئة وستين بيتًا. وفيها تعلّم إلهةٌ أن «ما هو موجود» وحده يمكن أن يُفكَّر فيه ويُقال، وأنه غير مكوَّن ولا فاسد، واحد ساكن؛ ويعرض القسم الثاني آراء الفانين. وهو مؤسس المدرسة الإيلية، ومعلّم زينون، وبحسب الرواية مشرّع مدينته، وقد طبعت حجته الفلسفة اللاحقة كلها.

مؤلَّفًا
5مؤلَّفًا
طبعة
22طبعة
اقتباسًا
14اقتباسًا
مقطع فيديو
12مقطع فيديو
صورة
5صورة
Cabeza identificada con Parménides (Velia)

Cabeza identificada con Parménides (Velia) · CC BY-SA 4.0

بكلماته

«Meet it is that thou shouldst learn all things, as well the unshaken heart of well-rounded truth, as the opinions of mortals in which is no true belief at all.»

DK 28 B1.28–30, en Sexto Empírico, Contra los matemáticos VII 111, y Simplicio, Comentario al Sobre el cielo 557. Griego: Diels-Kranz; inglés: John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1908); español: traducción propia.

فكرته المحورية

What is (to eon): The poem turns on a single word, the Greek verb *esti*, "is", often without an expressed subject.

السيرة

4 دقيقة قراءة

ترجمة مُعانة من الأصل الإسباني، بانتظار مراجعة مترجم من أهل اللغة.

قصيدة الطريق الواحد

كتب برمانيدس قصيدة واحدة على البحر السداسي، وهو وزن أوميروس وهسيودوس، بقي منها نحو مئة وستين بيتًا بفضل استشهادات سكستوس أمبيريقوس وسنبليقيوس وبرقلس وفلوطرخس وغيرهم. وهي أول نص في الفلسفة اليونانية يحتجّ خطوة فخطوة، وأول نص يسأل عمّا يعنيه أن نقول عن شيء إنه «موجود». وقد وصفه أفلاطون بأنه «جليل ومَهيب»، وخصّه بمحاورة، وصوّر القطيعة مع مذهبه بأنها «قتلٌ للأب»؛ وناقش أرسطو أطروحاته في مستهل «السماع الطبيعي». ويمكن أن تُقرأ فلسفة الطبيعة اللاحقة كلها، من أنبادقليس إلى الذريين، على أنها ردّ على إنكاره للكون والفساد.

إيليا

كانت إيليا — «هيلي» عند مؤسسيها و«فيليا» عند الرومان — مستعمرة فتية على ساحل البحر التيراني، جنوب بوسيدونيا. وقد أسّسها نحو سنة 540 ق.م أهل فوقية الفارّون من الزحف الفارسي على أيونية، كما يروي هيرودوت. ويجعل ديوجانس اللائرتي برمانيدس ابنًا لبيريس، من أسرة نبيلة ثرية، ويضع ذروته، متابعًا أبولودوروس، في الأولمبياد التاسع والستين (504–501 ق.م)، مما يجعل مولده نحو 540. أما أفلاطون فيروي في محاورة «برمانيدس» أن الفيلسوف زار أثينا وهو في نحو الخامسة والستين، حين كان سقراط شابًا جدًا، مما يجعل مولده نحو 515. وقد ارتاب برنت في أن أبولودوروس جعل ذروته توافق تأسيس إيليا؛ ويفضّل كثير من المختصين التأريخ الأفلاطوني، وإن كان مشهد المحاورة على الأرجح من نسج الخيال الأدبي؛ وكان برنت، الذي عدّه تاريخيًا، من القلائل الذين دافعوا عنه.

معلّمون وتلاميذ وقوانين

نسب إليه القدماء عدة معلّمين. فأرسطو ينقل أنه كان يقال إنه تلميذ أكسانوفانس، الشاعر الفيلسوف الذي انتقد آلهة أوميروس وعاش هو أيضًا في الغرب اليوناني؛ وربطه ثاوفرسطس بأنكسيمندريس. وكان سوتيون أدقّ، فروى أن فيثاغوريًا فقيرًا لكنه نبيل، هو أمينياس بن ديوخايتاس، هو الذي قاده إلى حياة الدرس الهادئة، وأن برمانيدس أقام له بعد موته مزارًا كما يُقام للأبطال. وكان اسبوسيبس، ابن أخت أفلاطون، يؤكد أنه وضع لمدينته قوانينها، ويضيف فلوطرخس أن حكّام إيليا كانوا يقسمون كل عام على التزامها؛ وينسب سترابون حُسن تدبير المدينة إلى برمانيدس وإلى زينون، أشهر تلاميذه.

وفي سنة 1962 كشفت الحفريات في فيليا عن تمثال نصفي (هِرمة) بلا رأس من القرن الأول للميلاد، عليه نقش: «برمانيدس بن بيريس، أولياديس، الفيلسوف الطبيعي». وتكرّم نقوش أخرى من المبنى نفسه أطباء بلقب أولياديس، الذي يحيل إلى أبولون أوليوس، الشافي. ويوحي هذا الخبر بأن مدرسة طبية في إيليا كانت، بعد قرون، تنتسب إلى برمانيدس. وقد اقترح بيتر كينغزلي أن يُرى فيه إياترومانتيس، أي كاهن شافٍ يمارس الاستشفاء بالرؤيا في المعابد، وأن تُقرأ القصيدة على أنها رواية لتجربة كشفية؛ والفرضية مثيرة، لكنها لا تستند إلى أدلة مباشرة، ويعدّها أكثر المختصين ضربًا من التخمين.

الرحلة

تبدأ القصيدة برحلة. فتى تحمله عربة تجرّها أفراس حكيمات، تقودها بنات الشمس اللواتي غادرن دار الليل؛ والمحاور تصرّ في صُرَر العجلات. ويبلغون أبواب طرق الليل والنهار، التي تحفظ مفاتيحها العدالةُ المنتقمة؛ فتستميلها العذارى، وتنفتح الأبواب. وفي الجهة الأخرى تأخذ إلهةٌ لا اسم لها بيد الفتى اليمنى، وتعلن له أن عليه أن يتعلم كل شيء: «قلب الحقيقة المستديرة الذي لا يضطرب»، وآراء الفانين التي ليس فيها يقين صادق. وقد قرأ سكستوس أمبيريقوس، الذي حفظ لنا هذا المطلع، الرحلةَ رمزًا للمعرفة؛ ورأى فيها فالتر بوركرت نزولًا إلى العالم السفلي، ورأى فيها آخرون طقس تكريس.

طريق الحقيقة

تعلّم الإلهة أن ليس ثمة إلا طريقان للبحث يمكن تصوّرهما: أنه «موجود» ولا يمكن ألا يكون، وأنه «غير موجود» ولا بدّ ألا يكون. والثاني طريق لا يُسلك، لأن ما ليس موجودًا لا يمكن معرفته ولا قوله؛ «فالفكر والوجود شيء واحد» (B3). غير أن الفانين يتيهون في درب ثالث: «ذوو رأسين»، بلا تمييز، يظنون الوجود واللاوجود شيئًا واحدًا وليسا شيئًا واحدًا. والشذرة الثامنة الطويلة، التي نسخها سنبليقيوس في القرن السادس لأن الكتاب، كما يقول، صار نادرًا، تستنبط «علامات» الموجود: فهو غير مكوَّن ولا فاسد، لأنه لا يمكن أن يأتي مما ليس موجودًا؛ وهو تام، واحد، ساكن، كامل؛ «لم يكن ولن يكون، لأنه الآن كلّه معًا، واحد، متصل»؛ وهو محدود من كل جهة، أشبه بكتلة كرة تامة الاستدارة.

وما «الموجود» على وجه الدقة لا يزال موضع جدل. ففي التفسير التقليدي ينكر برمانيدس الكثرة والتغيّر في العالم؛ وقرأ فيه ج. إ. ل. أوين أطروحة عن كل ما يمكن أن يكون موضوعًا للفكر؛ وأبرز ألكسندر موريلاتوس وتشارلز كان المعنى الإسنادي والمعنى الدالّ على الصدق في الفعل اليوناني؛ ودافع جون بالمر عن «أحادية سخية» يصف برمانيدس بموجبها ما هو موجود بالضرورة من غير أن ينكر وجود أشياء أخرى.

طريق الظن

بعد أن تختم الإلهة «قولها الموثوق»، تعرض «النظام الخادع» لآراء الفانين: عالمًا مبنيًا من صورتين، النور أو النار الأثيرية والليل الكثيف، لم يبقَ لنا منه إلا أبيات قليلة. وفيها حديث عن حلقات سماوية، وعن إلهة تدبّر كل شيء وابتدعت إيروس أول الآلهة جميعًا، وعن القمر الذي يضيء «بنور مستعار» ناظرًا أبدًا إلى أشعة الشمس، وعن تكوّن الجنين، وعن الفكر بحسب امتزاج الأعضاء. ونُسب إلى برمانيدس أنه أدرك أن نجم الصباح ونجم المساء كوكب واحد، وأن الأرض كروية، وإن كانت الأخبار نفسها تُروى عن فيثاغورس. أما لماذا تعلّم إلهةٌ بالتفصيل كوسمولوجيا تعلن أنها باطلة، فذلك أحد ألغاز القصيدة.

إرث إيليا

دافع زينون، تلميذه، عن المذهب بمفارقات تكشف ما في الكثرة والحركة من محالات؛ وأعاد مليسوس الساموسي صياغته نثرًا. وقبل أنبادقليس وأنكساغوراس ولوقيبوس وديمقراطيس أن لا شيء يتكوّن من العدم ولا يفنى إليه، وفسّروا التغيّر بأنه امتزاج عناصر لا تتغير وانفصالها. واضطر أفلاطون، في «السفسطائي»، إلى «التجرّؤ على الأب برمانيدس» ليمنح اللاوجود معنى بوصفه غيرية. أما موته فلا يُعرف عنه شيء. وقد ضاعت قصيدته كتابًا، لكنها بقيت في الشروح الأفلاطونية المحدثة، وهي اليوم من أكثر نصوص العصور القديمة دراسةً.

المصادر: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres IX 21–23 (Parménides), 25 (Zenón) y 24 (Meliso), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342); trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb, 1925 (Wikisource). · Diels, Hermann y Kranz, Walther. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6.ª ed. Weidmann, Berlín, 1951–1952, cap. 28 (Parmenides), A (testimonios) y B 1–19. Texto griego consultado en la transcripción de Wikisource en griego («Περί φύσεως (Παρμενίδης)»). · Kirk, G. S., Raven, J. E. y Schofield, M. The Presocratic Philosophers, 2.ª ed. Cambridge University Press, 1983, cap. VIII (Parmenides of Elea). Trad. esp. de Jesús García Fernández, Gredos, 1987. · Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy, 2.ª ed. A. and C. Black, Londres, 1908, cap. IV (Parmenides of Elea), §§ 84–97 (Project Gutenberg n.º 67097). · Coxon, A. H. The Fragments of Parmenides: A Critical Text with Introduction and Translation, the Ancient Testimonia and a Commentary. Van Gorcum, Assen, 1986; ed. revisada por Richard McKirahan, Parmenides Publishing, Las Vegas, 2009.

الخط الزمني

الحياة عامًا بعد عام

كل نقطة حدث موثّق. انقر لتقرأه مع مصدره ودرجة اليقين فيه.

  1. نحو 540 ق.م

    Foundation of Elea

    Phocaeans fleeing the Persian advance found Hyele on the Tyrrhenian coast after the battle of Alalia (Herodotus I 163–167). Years BCE are expressed as negative numbers.

    مرجَّح

  2. نحو 515 ق.م · أقل من عام

    Birth

    Born in Elea, son of Pyres, of a noble and wealthy family. The date is inferred from Plato (Parmenides 127b); Apollodorus' chronology would place his birth around 540.

    مرجَّح

  3. نحو 504 ق.م

    Floruit according to Apollodorus

    Diogenes Laertius (IX 23) places his prime in the 69th Olympiad (504–501 BCE), the same as Heraclitus'.

    تقليد

  4. نحو 490 ق.م

    Ameinias and the contemplative life

    According to Sotion (in Diogenes Laertius IX 21), the Pythagorean Ameinias turns him to the life of study; at his death Parmenides dedicates a hero-shrine to him. Date unknown.

    تقليد

  5. نحو 480 ق.م

    Composition of the poem

    He composes his hexameter poem, traditionally called On Nature. The date is an estimate; the poem seems to respond to Heraclitus and precedes Empedocles and Zeno.

    مختلَف فيه

  6. نحو 470 ق.م

    Lawgiver of Elea

    Speusippus (in Diogenes Laertius IX 23) and Plutarch (Against Colotes 1126a) credit him with Elea's laws, which magistrates swore each year to obey. Date unknown.

    تقليد

  7. نحو 450 ق.م · 65 عامًا

    Visit to Athens with Zeno

    According to Plato's Parmenides (127a–c), he attends the Great Panathenaea with Zeno, stays in the Ceramicus and converses with a very young Socrates. The meeting is probably a literary fiction; Athenaeus (XI 505f) already doubted it.

    مختلَف فيه

  8. نحو 370 ق.م

    Plato writes the Parmenides and the Sophist

    Plato makes Parmenides the protagonist of a dialogue and, in the Sophist (241d), presents the critique of his thesis on not-being as "parricide".

    مرجَّح

  9. نحو 530

    Simplicius copies fragment 8

    In his commentary on Aristotle's Physics, Simplicius transcribes long passages of the poem "because of the rarity of the book" (In Phys. 144.25). Without him the way of truth would be unknown.

    موثّق

  10. 1897

    Diels's Parmenides Lehrgedicht

    Hermann Diels publishes the critical edition of the poem with German translation, the basis of the DK 28 numbering.

    موثّق

  11. 1962

    Discovery of the Velia herm

    Excavations bring to light a headless herm of the 1st century CE inscribed «Παρμενείδης Πύρητος Οὐλιάδης φυσικός», alongside others dedicated to Ouliad physicians.

    موثّق

  12. 1965

    Tarán's edition

    Leonardo Tarán publishes Parmenides: A Text with Translation, Commentary and Critical Essays, one of the standard twentieth-century editions.

    موثّق

المؤلَّفات

المؤلَّفات الأساسية

المؤلَّفات التي لا يُفهم إرثه من دونها.

On Nature (poem) — Parmenides

مؤلَّف مكتوب · نحو 480 ق.م

On Nature (poem)

Περὶ φύσεως (título convencional)

A didactic poem in dactylic hexameters, divided into a proem and two parts. In the proem (B1) a youth travels by chariot to the gates of Night and Day and is received by a goddess who promises to teach him the truth and the opinions of mortals. The way of truth (B2–B8.49) argues that only "what is" can be thought and said, and deduces that it is unborn, imperishable, one, continuous, unmoving and like a sphere. The way of opinion (B8.50–B19) sets out a cosmology of two principles, light and night, with theories of the stars, the moon, generation and thought. It is the founding text of Western ontology.

18 طبعة · amazon.es

Way of Truth (B2–B8.49) — Parmenides

مؤلَّف مكتوب · نحو 480 ق.م

Way of Truth (B2–B8.49)

Ἀλήθεια (DK 28 B2–B8.49)

The goddess's central teaching. It presents two ways of inquiry—"is" and "is not"—, rules out the second because what is not can be neither thought nor said, and censures the "two-headed" mortals who confuse being and not-being. In B8 it deduces the properties of what is: unborn and imperishable, whole and single, unmoving, without past or future, continuous, bounded and like a well-rounded sphere. It is the first extended deductive argument in Greek philosophy.

غير متوفّر اعرض الكتاب

4 طبعات

الأقوال

أقوال محدَّدة الموضع في مؤلَّف بعينه. كل منها يحمل مصدره ودرجة الثقة به.

Meet it is that thou shouldst learn all things, as well the unshaken heart of well-rounded truth, as the opinions of mortals in which is no true belief at all.

χρεὼ δέ σε πάντα πυθέσθαι / ἠμὲν Ἀληθείης εὐκυκλέος ἀτρεμὲς ἦτορ / ἠδὲ βροτῶν δόξας, ταῖς οὐκ ἔνι πίστις ἀληθής.

متحقَّق منهDK 28 B1.28–30, en Sexto Empírico, Contra los matemáticos VII 111, y Simplicio, Comentario al Sobre el cielo 557. Griego: Diels-Kranz; inglés: John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1908); español: traducción propia.

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أقوال منحولة أو مختلَف في نسبتها (4)
  • «Nothing comes from nothing (ex nihilo nihil fit).»

    The idea is in B8.7–10, but the Latin formula is not his: it comes from Lucretius (I 150, "nil posse creari de nilo") and scholasticism. It is ascribed to him through textbook summary.

  • «Being is and non-being is not.»

    A textbook formula condensing B2 and B6, but not found as such in the poem. Parmenides says "is" with no expressed subject, and the nominalised "Being" is a later interpretation.

  • «Change is an illusion.»

    A modern paraphrase. The poem says that coming to be, perishing, changing place and colour are "names" mortals have given believing them true (B8.38–41); it does not speak of illusion.

  • «If the one is not, nothing is.»

    The conclusion of Plato's dialogue Parmenides (166c), spoken by the character Parmenides. It is a Platonic construction, not a quotation from the historical philosopher.

الكلمات الأخيرة

لا توجد سجلات يمكن التحقق منها لكلماته الأخيرة.

No record of his last words or of the circumstances of his death survives.

اسأل

بماذا يجيب أثره

اثنا عشر سؤالًا كبيرًا من أسئلة الإنسانية، وما تتيح نصوصه الإجابة به عنها، مع المراجع. ولا نقوّله ما لم يقل أبدًا.

  • ما المطلق؟ هل الله موجود؟

    What is: one, ungenerated, imperishable and complete like a sphere

    مطلق غير شخصييُستنتج من تعاليمه

    Parmenides does not speak of God in the Way of Truth. What his poem presents as ultimate is “what is”: that which cannot not be, which is neither born nor perishes, which is all at once, one and continuous, and complete on every side like the bulk of a well-rounded sphere. It is held within its limits by Justice and Necessity, divine figures that in the poem function almost as names of logical law. The revelation itself is spoken by a nameless goddess who welcomes the youth in the proem. What the text allows us to affirm is an absolute without personal features, accessible only to thought, from which all genesis, change and plurality are excluded.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • من أنا؟ هل توجد ذات حقيقية؟

    The poem does not treat the self: only being and thinking

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    The surviving fragments of Parmenides contain no doctrine of the self or of the individual soul. The Way of Truth deals with “what is” and its relation to thought — the same is thinking and being, says B3 — but this thinking is not presented as the consciousness of a subject. In the Way of Opinion, B16 explains that the mind of humans depends on the mixture of their limbs at each moment, a physical psychology the goddess herself has labelled the opinion of mortals. The figure of the youth brought before the goddess in the proem is narrative. Readings that see in B3 an identity between consciousness and being belong to the later tradition.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • لماذا نتألّم؟

    The poem deals with mortals' error, not their pain

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    Parmenides does not ask why we suffer. What his poem diagnoses is something else: the straying of “two-headed” mortals, who know nothing, wander deaf and blind, and take being and not-being as the same and not the same (B6). That error is cognitive, not moral or existential, and the remedy the goddess offers is to judge by reason and not be carried along by the habit of the senses (B7). Neither the Way of Truth nor the remains of the Way of Opinion, devoted to cosmology and physiology, treat human pain as a problem. Attributing a doctrine of suffering to him would be inventing it.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • ماذا يحدث بعد الموت؟

    What is is neither born nor dies; the poem ignores the individual

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    The fragments of Parmenides do not deal with what happens to the person after death. The Way of Truth holds that what is is ungenerated and imperishable, because from what is not nothing can come and into it nothing can go; Justice does not loosen her fetters to let it be born or perish. But that argument concerns being as such, not the individual soul, and applying it to the soul would be an extrapolation. The Way of Opinion, which contains the cosmology, mentions a divinity that governs birth and the union of the sexes, but the surviving remains say nothing of a destiny after death.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • كيف يُبلَغ التحرّر أو الخلاص؟

    A journey from night to light to learn well-rounded truth

    بالمعرفة المباشرةيُستنتج من تعاليمه

    Parmenides' proem narrates a journey: mares carry the youth, “the man who knows”, along the road of the goddess; the daughters of the Sun leave the halls of Night and open for him the gates guarded by Justice. There the goddess promises to teach him everything: both the unshaken heart of well-rounded truth and the opinions of mortals, in which there is no true belief. The rest of the poem is that teaching, and its condition is to judge by reason and not by the unseeing eye or the echoing ear. If one can speak of liberation in Parmenides, it is that of thought leaving the path of mortals.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • هل نحتاج إلى معلّم؟

    A goddess teaches, but asks that her proof be judged by reason

    مفيد لكنه ليس ضروريًايُستنتج من تعاليمه

    Parmenides' poem takes the form of teaching: a nameless goddess welcomes the youth, takes his right hand and promises to teach him the truth and the opinions of mortals. It might seem a revelation accepted on authority. Yet the goddess asks for no faith: she urges him not to be carried by the habit of the senses and to judge by reason the much-contested refutation she sets before him (B7). The divine guide opens the way, but assent depends on the disciple's reasoning. The fragments say nothing of human teachers; tradition makes Parmenides a pupil of Xenophanes and of the Pythagorean Ameinias, and teacher of Zeno of Elea.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • هل العالم حقيقي؟

    Only what is is; the world of mortals is name and opinion

    ظاهرٌ فوق الحقيقة الواحدةيقوله صراحةً

    The Way of Truth proves that what is can neither come to be nor perish, nor move, nor be divided, because that would mean admitting what is not. It follows that the world the senses perceive — birth, death, change of place, alteration of colour — consists of names mortals have laid down trusting them to be true. Yet the goddess does not simply dismiss that world: in the second part of the poem she sets out a complete cosmology, based on light and night, so that no mortal may outstrip him in knowledge, although she warns that its arrangement is deceptive. The world has the consistency of appearance; only what is is fully real.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • ما الحب؟

    Eros appears only in the cosmogony, as the first of the gods

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    Parmenides does not treat love as a human experience or as a path. In the Way of Opinion, devoted to the cosmology of mortals, a divinity who governs all things drives the union of female and male (B12), and of her it is said that she devised Eros, first of all the gods (B13), a line Plato quotes in the Symposium. It is a cosmogonic force explaining generation, not a doctrine of love as a bond between persons or as longing for the divine. Moreover, the goddess presents that whole section of the poem as the opinion of mortals. On love in an ethical or mystical sense, Parmenides is silent.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • هل نحن أحرار أم أن كل شيء مقدَّر؟

    Necessity binds being, but the poem says nothing of human action

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    In Parmenides' poem Necessity and Justice appear often, but not as forces governing human life. In the Way of Truth mighty Necessity holds what is in the bonds of the limit, and Justice does not loosen her fetters to let it come to be or perish: they are figures of the immutability of being. In the cosmology, Necessity binds the heaven to hold the limits of the stars (B10). None of the fragments asks whether humans choose their acts or whether everything is determined. Ancient tradition made Parmenides lawgiver of Elea, but his laws do not survive. On this question he is silent.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • لماذا نتأمّل أو نصلّي؟

    The proem's journey is no method of prayer or meditation

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    The fragments of Parmenides contain no teachings on prayer or meditative practices. The proem narrates a chariot journey to a goddess and is full of religious imagery — the daughters of the Sun, Justice holding the keys, the gates of the paths of Night and Day —, but its function in the poem is to introduce a teaching that must be judged by reason. A recent line of interpretation, represented by Peter Kingsley, has linked Parmenides with Apollo's healer-priests at Elea and with incubation practices; it rests on inscriptions found at Velia, not on the poem. Attributing a doctrine of prayer to him would go beyond the texts.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • هل يستطيع العقل أن يعرف الحقيقة القصوى؟

    A goddess reveals the truth, but demands it be judged by reason alone

    الإيمان والعقل يتعاونانيُستنتج من تعاليمه

    Parmenides is at once the thinker of revelation and the founder of deductive argument. His poem puts the truth in the mouth of a goddess, reached by a journey far from the paths of men; but what the goddess teaches is rigorous reasoning, and her watchword is not to be carried by the habit of the senses but to judge by reason the refutation she proposes. For Parmenides thought does reach the ultimate: thinking and being are the same, and what is not cannot be thought or said. Divine revelation and reason do not compete: the first provides the frame, the second the proof; the senses are relegated to opinion.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين
  • الانسحاب من العالم أم تغييره؟

    The poem does not treat social life; tradition made him a lawgiver

    لم يُبدِ رأيًا

    The fragments of Parmenides' poem contain no reflection on how to live among humans, whether to withdraw or act in the city. The proem's journey takes the youth far from the paths of men, but that distance is one of knowledge, not a programme of life. Reports of his public life come from other sources: Speusippus, according to Diogenes Laertius, said he gave laws to his fellow citizens of Elea, and Plutarch adds that magistrates swore each year to observe them. If so, Parmenides would have been an active citizen; but his laws do not survive and cannot be connected with his doctrine. On this question his work is silent.

    قارن هذا السؤال مع معلّمين آخرين

حكايات وروايات

حكايات وروايات

مختلَف فيهc. 500–490 a. C. (incierto)

Ameinias' shrine

Parmenides, Sotion relates, heard Xenophanes but did not follow him. The one who led him to the quiet life of study was Ameinias son of Diochaitas, a poor but noble Pythagorean. Parmenides, of an illustrious and wealthy family, became his companion and, when Ameinias died, built him a *heroon*, a small shrine of the kind dedicated to heroes and founders. The scene has a concrete air—the father's name, the poverty, the monument—that led Burnet to write that it "does not read like an invention", since Alexandrian scholars had information about southern Italy now lost; it also fits the relationship ascribed to Parmenides with the Pythagorean circles of southern Italy.

أصل الرواية: Diogenes Laertius IX 21, quoting Sotion of Alexandria (2nd century BCE). There is no other source. Burnet (Early Greek Philosophy, § 84) considers it plausible.

المصدر: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres IX 21–23 (Parménides), 25 (Zenón) y 24 (Meliso), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342); trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb, 1925 (Wikisource).

شهادةs. V a. C.

The magistrates' oath

Speusippus, Plato's nephew and successor at the Academy, wrote that Parmenides had given laws to his fellow citizens. Plutarch, four centuries later, adds a detail: Parmenides ordered his city with such excellent laws that the magistrates swore every year, on taking office, to abide by the laws of Parmenides. Strabo, for his part, credits Parmenides and Zeno with the good government of Elea, which held out against the Lucanians and the Posidonians despite its small territory. The report, transmitted by a fourth-century BCE Academic, is one of the oldest about his life and belies the image of a metaphysician withdrawn from the world.

أصل الرواية: Speusippus in Diogenes Laertius IX 23; Plutarch, Against Colotes 1126a–b; Strabo VI 1.1. The three sources are independent of one another, though none is contemporary.

المصدر: Plutarco. Contra Colotes 1126a–b; Estrabón, Geografía VI 1.1; Espeusipo citado por Diógenes Laercio IX 23.

مختلَف فيهc. 450 a. C.

The meeting with the young Socrates

Plato relates that Parmenides and Zeno came to Athens for the Great Panathenaea. Parmenides was already very old, his hair completely white, noble in appearance and about sixty-five; Zeno, tall and graceful, was about forty. They stayed at Pythodorus' house in the Ceramicus, and there Socrates, then very young, came with others to hear Zeno's book read. The conversation that follows, in which Parmenides criticises the young Socrates' theory of Forms, fills the dialogue Parmenides. In the Theaetetus Socrates recalls that meeting: Parmenides seemed to him "venerable and awesome", with a depth altogether noble. Already Athenaeus, in the second century CE, objected that the chronology made it impossible, and many scholars regard it as literary fiction; Burnet and Eduard Meyer, by contrast, considered it historical, since Plato mentions it in three different dialogues. In any case, the age Plato gives him is the basis of modern chronology.

أصل الرواية: Plato, Parmenides 127a–c; Theaetetus 183e; Sophist 217c. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists XI 505f, considers it anachronistic. It is a literary testimony without independent confirmation.

المصدر: Platón. Parménides 127a–128b; Teeteto 183e–184a; Sofista 237a, 241d–242a; Banquete 178b. Trad. inglesa de Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato, 3.ª ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1892 (Project Gutenberg n.º 1687, Parmenides).

موثّقs. I d. C. (inscripción); 1962 (hallazgo)

"Parmenides, son of Pyres, Ouliades, natural philosopher"

In 1962, in the excavations at Velia—ancient Elea, on the Cilento coast—archaeologists found a group of marble herms of imperial date. One, headless, was inscribed: "Parmenides, son of Pyres, Ouliades, natural philosopher". Others honoured physicians named Oulis, with the same title of *Ouliades* and the designation *iatros* or *pholarchos*. The find, published in 1962 in the journal Apollo and later studied by Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, showed that centuries after his death a corporation of physicians, tied to the cult of Apollo Oulios the healer, revered Parmenides as its ancestor. A male head of the first century CE found at the same site has since been identified with him.

أصل الرواية: Packard Humanities Institute, inscription no. 301222 (Apollo 2, 1962, 125–136; SEG 38.1020). Reading "Ouliades" as the title of a medical school is the most widespread interpretation; Peter Kingsley developed it into his hypothesis of Parmenides the healer.

المصدر: Packard Humanities Institute, Searchable Greek Inscriptions, n.º 301222: herma acéfala de mármol blanco de Velia, s. I d. C., «Παρμενείδης Πύρητος Οὐλιάδης φυσικός»; primera publicación en Apollo 2 (1962) 125–136; SEG 38.1020 y 53.1114.

مختلَف فيهs. V a. C.

The evening star and the morning star

Favorinus, a second-century scholar, credited Parmenides with discovering that Hesperus, the evening star, and Phosphorus, the morning star, are the same body; Theophrastus, according to Diogenes Laertius, regarded him as the first to state that the earth is spherical and lies at the centre. The same firsts were also ascribed to Pythagoras, and the poet Callimachus cast doubt on some of these reports. What the fragments do attest is a precise astronomical observation: the moon shines "with borrowed light" and looks "always towards the beams of the sun" (B14–B15), the first surviving statement that moonlight is reflected sunlight.

أصل الرواية: Diogenes Laertius IX 21 and 23 (Theophrastus, Favorinus); VIII 14 and 48 ascribe the same to Pythagoras. Fragments B14 and B15 are transmitted by Plutarch.

المصدر: Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres IX 21–23 (Parménides), 25 (Zenón) y 24 (Meliso), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342); trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb, 1925 (Wikisource).

موثّقc. 530 d. C.

Simplicius and the rarity of the book

Around the year 530, a thousand years after Parmenides, the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius was commenting on Aristotle's Physics. On reaching the discussion of the Eleatics he decided to copy out at length Parmenides' lines on what is, and explained why: he did so "because of the rarity of the book". Thanks to that decision we have almost entire fragment 8, sixty-one lines containing the core of the Parmenidean argument. Simplicius was one of the last philosophers of the Athenian school, closed by Justinian in 529, and probably worked from one of the last complete copies of the poem.

أصل الرواية: Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics 144.25–28 (ed. Diels, 1882). The commentator himself states his motive.

المصدر: Simplicio. In Aristotelis Physicorum libros commentaria, ed. Hermann Diels, Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca IX, Reimer, Berlín, 1882, pp. 144–146 (transcripción de B8 «por la rareza del libro»).

التعاليم

التعاليم

المفاهيم التي ينتظم بها فكره، مشروحة في سياقها.

What is (to eon)lo-que-es
The poem turns on a single word, the Greek verb *esti*, "is", often without an expressed subject. Parmenides makes it the object of inquiry: what is (*to eon*) cannot have come to be, for it would have to come from what is not, which cannot be thought; for the same reason it cannot perish, grow, have parts more or less full, or move. Nor does it have past or future: "it is now, all together, one, continuous" (B8.5–6). And it is bounded, for Necessity holds it in her bonds and the unlimited would be incomplete. Tradition has understood it as "Being" with a capital letter and as the first formulation of monism. But the sense of the verb is disputed: it can be existential (that something exists), predicative (that something is such-and-such) or veridical (that something is the case), and each reading changes the thesis.

The core of the way of truth (B2, B6, B8).

المصدر: Palmer, John. «Parmenides». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta y Uri Nodelman; primera publicación el 8 de febrero de 2008, revisión sustancial del 4 de marzo de 2025.

The two ways of inquirylas-dos-vias
The goddess presents inquiry as a choice between roads (*hodoi*). In B2 there are two: "that it is and cannot not be", the path of Persuasion attending on Truth, and "that it is not and necessarily is not", an unsearchable track, for what is not cannot be known or said. In B6 a third appears, that of "two-headed" mortals who wander without judgement, believing being and not-being the same and not the same, and for whom the path of all things turns back on itself. The road metaphor structures the whole poem: the proem's journey, the crossroads, the "signs" marking the true way (B8.2). Alexander Mourelatos studied this imagery as the key to the work, and many interpreters see in the third way a critique of Heraclitus.

Fragments B2, B6, B7 and B8.1–2.

المصدر: Mourelatos, Alexander P. D. The Route of Parmenides. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1970 (ed. revisada, Parmenides Publishing, 2008); y Palmer, John, Parmenides and Presocratic Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2009.

Thinking and beingpensar-y-ser
"For the same thing is for thinking and for being" (B3) is probably the most quoted and debated line of Parmenides. At the very least it holds that only what is can be thought: thought cannot take nothing as its object. B8.34–36 develops it: thinking and that for the sake of which there is thought are the same, for you will not find thinking without what is, in which it is expressed. Plotinus read in B3 the identity of Intellect and being; German idealism and Heidegger made it the origin of Western metaphysics. Philologists point out that the Greek syntax allows a more modest reading—"the same thing can be thought and can be"—which does not identify thought and reality but establishes that only the real is thinkable.

Fragments B3 and B8.34–36; reception in Plotinus (Enneads V 1, 8).

المصدر: Diels, Hermann y Kranz, Walther. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6.ª ed. Weidmann, Berlín, 1951–1952, cap. 28 (Parmenides), A (testimonios) y B 1–19. Texto griego consultado en la transcripción de Wikisource en griego («Περί φύσεως (Παρμενίδης)»).

Truth (aletheia) and opinion (doxa)verdad-y-opinion
The goddess promises to teach two things: the unshaken heart of truth and the opinions of mortals, "in which there is no true belief" (B1.28–30). The second part of the poem builds a cosmos from two forms, light and night, which mortals "decided to name" when they should have named only one (B8.53–54). The poem then adds an enigmatic line: thus you will learn how the things that seem had to be acceptably, pervading all (B1.31–32). For some interpreters the doxa is a rival doctrine Parmenides sets out in order to refute it; for others, the best possible account of the sensible world, false in the strict sense but superior to the rest; for others again, a legitimate part of his thought. The distinction between the intelligible and the sensible that Plato would develop has its first sketch here.

Fragments B1.28–32, B8.50–61, B9–B19.

المصدر: Kirk, G. S., Raven, J. E. y Schofield, M. The Presocratic Philosophers, 2.ª ed. Cambridge University Press, 1983, cap. VIII (Parmenides of Elea). Trad. esp. de Jesús García Fernández, Gredos, 1987.

The well-rounded sphereesfera
At the end of the way of truth Parmenides compares what is to "the mass of a well-rounded sphere, equally balanced from the centre in every direction" (B8.43–44). The image expresses perfection and homogeneity: nothing is more here and less there, nothing is lacking, its limits are equal on every side. Already in antiquity it was debated whether the sphere was literal—a finite, spherical physical universe—or a comparison, as the particle *enalinkion*, "like", indicates. Melissus, his follower, rejected the limit and declared what is infinite. Empedocles took up the image in his Sphairos, the state of perfect unity under Love, and the Platonic and Neoplatonic tradition turned it into a symbol of the divine.

Fragment B8.42–49.

المصدر: Palmer, John. «Parmenides». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta y Uri Nodelman; primera publicación el 8 de febrero de 2008, revisión sustancial del 4 de marzo de 2025.

The journey of the proemel-viaje-del-proemio
The poem does not begin with an argument but with a first-person narrative: the youth's chariot journey to the gates of Night and Day and his reception by a goddess. The imagery comes from epic and religious poetry: the Heliades, the bronze gates, Justice keeping the keys, the right hand clasped. Sextus Empiricus read it as allegory: the horses are the soul's impulses, the maidens the senses, the goddess reason. Hermann Fränkel and Walter Burkert linked the journey to the underworld descents of Orphic and shamanic poetry; Peter Kingsley interprets it as the account of an incubation in which the sage receives revelations from the gods. Whatever its origin, the proem presents truth as something received after a journey off the beaten track of men, not as the author's opinion.

Fragment B1; testimony of Sextus Empiricus (Against the Mathematicians VII 111–114).

المصدر: Sexto Empírico. Contra los matemáticos VII 111–114 (cita y alegoría del proemio, B1.1–30). Trad. inglesa de R. G. Bury, Loeb Classical Library, 1935.

مقاطع الفيديو

مقاطع الفيديو

تسجيلات ومقابلات وأفلام وثائقية. تُشغَّل مقاطع الفيديو من YouTube؛ ولا تُستضاف هنا.

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    Résonance[s]

المعرض

المعرض

صور بترخيص متحقَّق منه. كل منها تحتفظ بمؤلّفها ونسبتها.

العلاقات

العلاقات

تأثيرات وتلمذة وتقارب في الأفكار. تُميَّز العلاقة الموثّقة عن التشابه المستخلَص بالتحليل.

  • تلميذ

    Jenófanes

    Aristotle (Metaphysics A 5) records that he "is said" to have been his pupil, and Diogenes Laertius states it; the relationship is traditional and disputed.

    تشابه مستخلَص بالتحليل

  • تأثّر بـ

    Pythagoras

    According to Sotion, it was the Pythagorean Ameinias who led him to the life of study; the link with Pythagoreanism is indirect.

    تشابه مستخلَص بالتحليل

  • معاصر لـ

    Heraclitus

    Contemporaries; many read in B6 ("two-headed mortals… for whom the path of all things turns back on itself") a polemical allusion to Heraclitus.

    تشابه مستخلَص بالتحليل

  • معلّم

    Zenón de Elea

    His pupil and, according to Plato, his beloved; he defended his doctrine with the paradoxes against plurality and motion.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • معلّم

    Meliso de Samos

    Diogenes Laertius (IX 24) makes him a pupil of Parmenides; he reformulated the Eleatic thesis in prose, with what is as infinite.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • أثّر في

    Empedocles

    Theophrastus, quoted by Diogenes Laertius (VIII 55), calls him an "emulator and imitator" of Parmenides in his poems; Empedocles accepts that nothing comes to be or perishes.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • التقى بـ

    Socrates

    Plato narrates a meeting in Athens around 450 BCE (Parmenides 127a–c; Theaetetus 183e; Sophist 217c); many consider it fictitious, though Burnet accepted it as historical.

    تشابه مستخلَص بالتحليل

  • أثّر في

    Plato

    He devotes the dialogue Parmenides to him and, in the Sophist, presents his own theory of not-being as "parricide" against him.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • أثّر في

    Aristotle

    He discusses the Eleatic thesis at the start of the Physics (I 2–3) and in the Metaphysics (A 5), and explains the pluralists as a response to it.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • أثّر في

    Plotinus

    In the Enneads (V 1, 8) he quotes B3 and presents Parmenides as a forerunner of the identity of Intellect and being.

    علاقة موثّقة

  • أفكار قريبة من

    Adi Shankara

    The affirmation of a single reality, unborn and unchanging, against apparent multiplicity has led to comparisons between the way of truth and Advaita Vedanta; there is no historical contact.

    تشابه مستخلَص بالتحليل

المصادر

المصادر

المراجع والفهارس التي رُوجعت لهذه الصفحة.

  1. Wikidata, entidad Q125551 «Parmenides» (112 enlaces entre wikis; P31=Q5). Registra nacimiento en 515 a. C. y muerte en 470 a. C. (esta última incompatible con la cronología platónica) y Elea como lugar de nacimiento.
  2. Diógenes Laercio. Vidas y opiniones de los filósofos ilustres IX 21–23 (Parménides), 25 (Zenón) y 24 (Meliso), s. III d. C. Trad. inglesa de C. D. Yonge, Bohn, Londres, 1853 (Project Gutenberg n.º 57342); trad. inglesa de R. D. Hicks, Loeb, 1925 (Wikisource).
  3. Diels, Hermann y Kranz, Walther. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6.ª ed. Weidmann, Berlín, 1951–1952, cap. 28 (Parmenides), A (testimonios) y B 1–19. Texto griego consultado en la transcripción de Wikisource en griego («Περί φύσεως (Παρμενίδης)»).
  4. Kirk, G. S., Raven, J. E. y Schofield, M. The Presocratic Philosophers, 2.ª ed. Cambridge University Press, 1983, cap. VIII (Parmenides of Elea). Trad. esp. de Jesús García Fernández, Gredos, 1987.
  5. Palmer, John. «Parmenides». The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta y Uri Nodelman; primera publicación el 8 de febrero de 2008, revisión sustancial del 4 de marzo de 2025.
  6. Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy, 2.ª ed. A. and C. Black, Londres, 1908, cap. IV (Parmenides of Elea), §§ 84–97 (Project Gutenberg n.º 67097).
  7. Coxon, A. H. The Fragments of Parmenides: A Critical Text with Introduction and Translation, the Ancient Testimonia and a Commentary. Van Gorcum, Assen, 1986; ed. revisada por Richard McKirahan, Parmenides Publishing, Las Vegas, 2009.
  8. Laks, André y Most, Glenn W. (eds. y trads.). Early Greek Philosophy, vol. V: Western Greek Thinkers, Part 2. Loeb Classical Library 528, Harvard University Press, 2016.
  9. Graham, Daniel W. (ed. y trad.). The Texts of Early Greek Philosophy, 2 vols. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  10. Eggers Lan, Conrado y otros (introd., trad. y notas). Los filósofos presocráticos I. Biblioteca Clásica Gredos 12, Gredos, Madrid, 1978.
  11. Platón. Parménides 127a–128b; Teeteto 183e–184a; Sofista 237a, 241d–242a; Banquete 178b. Trad. inglesa de Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato, 3.ª ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1892 (Project Gutenberg n.º 1687, Parmenides).
  12. Aristóteles. Metafísica A 5, 986b18–987a2; Física I 2–3, 184b–187a; Sobre la generación y la corrupción I 8, 325a. Trad. inglesa de W. D. Ross y R. P. Hardie (Internet Classics Archive, MIT).
  13. Simplicio. In Aristotelis Physicorum libros commentaria, ed. Hermann Diels, Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca IX, Reimer, Berlín, 1882, pp. 144–146 (transcripción de B8 «por la rareza del libro»).
  14. Sexto Empírico. Contra los matemáticos VII 111–114 (cita y alegoría del proemio, B1.1–30). Trad. inglesa de R. G. Bury, Loeb Classical Library, 1935.
  15. Packard Humanities Institute, Searchable Greek Inscriptions, n.º 301222: herma acéfala de mármol blanco de Velia, s. I d. C., «Παρμενείδης Πύρητος Οὐλιάδης φυσικός»; primera publicación en Apollo 2 (1962) 125–136; SEG 38.1020 y 53.1114.
  16. Kingsley, Peter. In the Dark Places of Wisdom. Golden Sufi Center, Inverness (California), 1999.
  17. Plutarco. Contra Colotes 1126a–b; Estrabón, Geografía VI 1.1; Espeusipo citado por Diógenes Laercio IX 23.
  18. Cordero, Néstor Luis. Siendo, se es. La tesis de Parménides. Biblos, Buenos Aires, 2005.
  19. Tarán, Leonardo. Parmenides: A Text with Translation, Commentary and Critical Essays. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1965.
  20. Gallop, David. Parmenides of Elea: Fragments. A Text and Translation with an Introduction. University of Toronto Press (Phoenix, suppl. vol. 18), Toronto, 1984.
  21. Davidson, Thomas. «The Fragments of Parmenides». Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 4 (1870); separata, E. P. Gray, St. Louis, 1869 (Wikisource).
  22. Fairbanks, Arthur (ed. y trad.). The First Philosophers of Greece. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, Londres, 1898 (Project Gutenberg n.º 78670).
  23. «Parmenides», Wikipedia en inglés, y «Parménides», Wikipedia en español (consultadas para contrastar datos y bibliografía; texto propio).
  24. Open Library (Internet Archive): ediciones del poema de Parménides verificadas por ISBN.
  25. Heródoto. Historias I 163–167 (los focenses y la fundación de Hyele/Elea), s. V a. C. Trad. inglesa de G. C. Macaulay, Macmillan, Londres, 1890 (Project Gutenberg n.º 2707).
  26. Bernabé, Alberto (ed. y trad.) y Pérez de Tudela, Jorge (introd., notas y comentarios). Parménides. Poema. Fragmentos y tradición textual, epílogo de Néstor-Luis Cordero. Istmo (Fundamentos), Madrid, 2007.
  27. Mourelatos, Alexander P. D. The Route of Parmenides. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1970 (ed. revisada, Parmenides Publishing, 2008); y Palmer, John, Parmenides and Presocratic Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2009.
  28. Owen, G. E. L. «Eleatic Questions». The Classical Quarterly, 10 (1960), pp. 84–102.
  29. Plotino. Enéadas V 1, 8 (Parménides y la identidad de pensar y ser). Trad. inglesa de Stephen MacKenna, 1917–1930.
صاحب الحقوق
Textos antiguos en dominio público; cada traducción y edición crítica pertenece a su traductor o editorial

في انتظار التأكيد

ما لم تتمكّن هذه الصفحة من حسمه بعد. نفضّل أن نقول ذلك على أن نملأ الفراغ.

  • Muerte: no hay ningún dato antiguo sobre su fecha o lugar; Wikidata da 470 a. C., incompatible con la visita a Atenas a los 65 años que narra Platón. Se deja como «unknown».
  • Nacimiento: se adopta c. 515 a. C. (Platón, Parménides 127b; Wikidata); la cronología de Apolodoro (madurez en 504–501) lo situaría hacia el 540.
  • Edición de Akal (Básica de Bolsillo, 2008): traductor no verificado en catálogo. Tarán (Princeton, 1965): ISBN no verificado.
  • Traducción española de dominio público del poema: no localizada en línea con URL estable.
  • Manuscritos: el poema depende de los códices de Simplicio y Sexto Empírico; falta identificar signaturas y digitalizaciones fiables.
  • Programas de afiliación: ninguno verificado. Lista vacía.
  • Año de los vídeos: el de la grabación cuando la descripción lo indica y, si no, el de publicación en YouTube.

بُحث بتاريخ 2026-10-25