Heraclitus

Che cos'è l'Assoluto? Dio esiste?

A common logos and an ever-living fire that no god made

Un Assoluto impersonaleLo dice espressamente

For Heraclitus the ultimate is the logos, the measure according to which everything happens, and the ever-living fire that is kindled and quenched in measures. Fragment B30 explicitly denies that any of the gods or of men made the cosmos: it always was, is and will be. The divine here has no face of craftsman or father. Yet Heraclitus does not abandon religious language: B32 says that the one, the only wise thing, is unwilling and willing to be called by the name of Zeus, and B67 calls god the unity of opposites, day and night, winter and summer, war and peace. It is an impersonal and intelligent principle that the traditional name of the god only half designates.

Chi sono io? Esiste un vero sé?

The soul has no limits: its measure is the common logos

Il Sé è l'AssolutoSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus says of himself that he searched himself (B101) and that it belongs to all humans to know themselves and to be sound of mind (B116). But what he finds in searching himself is not a private interiority: you would not find the limits of the soul though you travelled every road, so deep is its logos (B45). That logos is common to all, as thinking is common (B113), and the error of the many lies in living as if they had a private understanding (B2). The soul is moreover fiery and changing: it comes from water and dies into water (B36). His work suggests that the depth of the self coincides with the measure governing the cosmos, though he never states an identity.

Perché soffriamo?

Sickness makes health sweet: whoever misses the logos suffers

L'ignoranza di ciò che siamoSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus devotes no fragment to the cause of suffering, but his work allows an attitude to be reconstructed. Opposites are inseparable: sickness makes health pleasant, hunger satiety, weariness rest (B111), and it would not be better for humans to get all they wish (B110). For god all things are beautiful, good and just; it is humans who have taken some things as unjust and others as just (B102). War itself is common and justice is strife (B80). Pain thus arises from a partial view: from those who do not grasp the logos although everything happens according to it (B1) and who live as if asleep.

Che cosa accade dopo la morte?

At death things await humans that they neither expect nor imagine

Silenzio o riserboSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus speaks of death in several fragments, always in his enigmatic style, and none offers a description of the beyond. B27 says that at death things await humans that they neither expect nor imagine; B62, that immortals and mortals live each other's death; B36 places the soul in the cycle of elements, for to souls it is death to become water. B25 promises greater portions to greater deaths, perhaps those of the fallen in battle. Together they suggest that death is one more transformation within the flux governed by the logos, and that what comes after does not match usual expectations; they do not allow us to affirm personal survival or to deny it.

Come si raggiunge la liberazione o la salvezza?

The wise is one thing: to know the thought that steers all through all

Con la conoscenza direttaSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus speaks not of salvation but of waking up. Humans live as if asleep, not understanding the logos although everything happens according to it (B1), and each turns towards a private world. The wise, says B41, is one thing: to know the thought that steers all things through all things. That understanding is not given by much learning, which did not teach Hesiod or Pythagoras (B40), but by listening to the logos and agreeing that all is one (B50). B112 joins knowledge and conduct: sound thinking is the greatest virtue, and wisdom is to speak the truth and act according to nature, heeding it. What frees is grasping the common measure.

Serve un maestro?

Not to me but to the logos: borrowed learning gives no understanding

Nessuna autorità spiritualeLo dice espressamente

Heraclitus is perhaps the Greek thinker most hostile to the authority of recognised sages. Much learning does not teach understanding, says B40; otherwise it would have taught Hesiod, Pythagoras, Xenophanes and Hecataeus. Homer deserves to be thrown out of the contests and flogged, and Hesiod, teacher of most, did not know that day and night are one. He does not even claim authority for himself: it is wise, listening not to him but to the logos, to agree that all is one (B50). And against any school he sets his own method: I searched myself (B101). No one can grasp for another the logos that is common to all.

Il mondo è reale?

Ever-living fire, kindled and quenched in measures

Un ordine naturale in trasformazioneLo dice espressamente

For Heraclitus the world is real and in perpetual transformation. B30 describes it as an ever-living fire kindled and quenched in measures, which no one made and which always was, is and will be. Upon those who step into the same rivers, other and other waters flow (B12): the identity of things holds through change, like that of the river. Opposites are joined in tension, as in the bow and the lyre (B51), and war is the father of all things (B53). But the flux is not chaos: the sun will not overstep its measures (B94). The real is the changing course of things, ordered by a logos to which the wise attune themselves.

Che cos'è l'amore?

No fragment speaks of love; the uniting force is tension

Non si è pronunciato

Among Heraclitus' surviving fragments there is none devoted to love, either erotic or as goodwill. What joins things in his work is not attraction but the tension of opposites: what differs agrees with itself, a harmony of opposing tensions, as in the bow and the lyre (B51). War is the father of all (B53) and justice is strife (B80). Heraclitus even reproaches Homer for wishing strife would vanish from among gods and men, since without it there would be no harmony (A22). It would be forced to extract a doctrine of love from this; the closest is hidden harmony, which is better than the manifest (B54).

Siamo liberi o è tutto determinato?

Character is a human being's destiny

Destino e responsabilitàLo dice espressamente

Heraclitus' most quoted fragment on this question is B119: character is a human being's destiny, his daimon. The sentence can be read in two senses that do not exclude each other: each person's destiny is not an alien power but is identified with his way of being; and, at the same time, that character works as a force that guides him. Elsewhere Heraclitus states that everything happens according to the logos (B1) and through strife and necessity (B80), and that the sun will not overstep its measures, for the Erinyes, helpers of Justice, would find it out (B94). There is an order governing everything, but the centre of gravity of human destiny lies in conduct.

Perché meditare o pregare?

Praying to statues is talking to walls: one must grasp the logos

Vedere la realtà così com'èSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus sharply criticises the religious forms of his time. Those who purify themselves by defiling themselves with blood are like someone who, having stepped into mud, would wash it off with mud; and they pray to statues as if one were to converse with houses, knowing nothing of gods or heroes (B5). Mystery rites, as practised, are unholy (B14). What he proposes instead is a form of attention: to listen to the logos and not to him (B50), to wake from the sleep in which most live (B1) and to search oneself (B101). The aim is not to gain favours but to see what is, the common logos that nature, which loves to hide, conceals.

Può la ragione conoscere l'ultimo?

Nature loves to hide; the logos is common, but few grasp it

Conoscenza esotericaSi deduce dalla sua dottrina

Heraclitus believes the logos can be understood — it is common to all, as thinking is (B113) — but that almost no one does. Nature loves to hide (B123), invisible harmony is better than visible (B54), and the lord whose oracle is at Delphi neither speaks nor conceals but gives signs (B93), just like his own enigmatic style, which earned him the nickname “the Obscure”. Eyes and ears are bad witnesses for those with barbarian souls (B107), and much learning does not give understanding (B40). Unless one expects the unexpected, one will not find it (B18). The ultimate is accessible but requires deciphering the signs; truth is in plain sight, hidden from those who cannot look.

Ritirarsi dal mondo o trasformarlo?

The people must fight for the law as for its city wall

Ordinare la societàLo dice espressamente

Ancient biography relates that Heraclitus renounced hereditary kingship in favour of his brother, refused to give laws to Ephesus and ended up living in the mountains, feeding on herbs. But these anecdotes, transmitted by Diogenes Laertius, are largely regarded as inferences from his fragments. The fragments themselves speak otherwise: the people must fight for the law as for the wall (B44); those who speak with understanding must rely on what is common to all, as a city on its law, and far more strongly, for all human laws are nourished by one, the divine (B114). Wisdom thus has a civic dimension: just law reflects the logos.